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Methodologies Flashcards

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1
Q

Extraneous Variables

A

Could affect the DV

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2
Q

Confounding Variables

A

Have affected the DV

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3
Q

Lab experiements

A
  • Controlled environment
  • Participants are randomly allocated to a condition
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4
Q

Lab advantages

A
  • High level of control
  • Easy to manipulate IV that can establish cause and effect
  • Easily replicated
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5
Q

Lab disadvantages

A
  • High chance of demand characteristics
  • Lack of mundane realism/ecological validity
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6
Q

Field experiments

A

Carried out in the real world

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7
Q

Field experiment advantages

A
  • More ecological validity
  • Lower chance of demand characteristics
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8
Q

Field experiment disadvantages

A
  • Less control over the sample
  • Harder to replicate
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9
Q

Natural experiments

A

Naturally occurring IV is observed for its effect on the DV

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10
Q

Natural experiments advantages

A
  • Very high ecological validity
  • Useful for otherwise unethical studies
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11
Q

Natural experiments disadvantages

A
  • Low control of Extraneous Variables
  • Harder to replicate
  • Harder to establish cause and effect
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12
Q

Quasi Experiments

A

Naturally occurring IV, which is a difference between people that already exists (ie gender, age, race)

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13
Q

Non-Participant observation

A

Researcher does not get involved with interactions between participants

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14
Q

Participant observation

A

Researcher is involved with interactions between participants

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15
Q

Covert observation

A

Psychologist goes undercover, group is unaware of observation

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16
Q

Overt observation

A

Group that knows they are being watched by a psychologist

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17
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Observing participants in their own environments and not deliberately manipulating the IV

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18
Q

Observation advantages

A
  • Covert observation reduces chances of observer effects (participants change behaviour due to observation)
  • Naturalistic observations are ecologically valid
  • Naturalistic observations are useful when deliberate manipulation of IV is impractical or unethical
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19
Q

Observation disadvantages

A
  • No control of Extraneous Variables
  • Problematic to determine cause and effect
  • Observer bias
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20
Q

Controlled Observation

A

Observing participants in a controlled environment, manipulating the IV

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21
Q

Controlled observation advantages

A
  • Cause and effect can be determined
  • Extraneous Variables can be controlled for
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22
Q

Controlled observation disadvantages

A
  • Lower ecological validity
  • Observer effects
  • Observer bias
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23
Q

Behavioural Categories

A
  • Observers have a list of behaviours to look out for and tally
  • Gives a clear focus
  • Easier to quantify/analyse
  • Higher reliability
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24
Q

Observer Bias

A
  • Observer knows the study’s aims, and has their observations influenced
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25
How to avoid observer bias
Use two observers who agree beforehand how to interpret behavioural categories
26
Inter-observer reliability
The observers agree
27
Intra-observer reliability
Observation is recorded and watched several times
28
Event sampling
Recording every time a behaviour occurs
29
Time sampling
Recording all behaviours within a given time frame
30
Structured Interview
Same questions, same order, for quantitative data
31
Unstructured Interview
Informal, in-depth conversation for qualitative data
32
Semi-structured Interview
Combine structured and unstructured for quantitative and qualitative data
33
Interview advantages
- Useful for sensitive issues - Can ask for clarification is a question is misunderstood
34
Interview Disadvantages
- Interviewer effects (a characteristic/behaviour of interviewer affects answer) - Social desirability bias - Interviewers must be trained (time consuming and expensive)
35
Recording interviews
- Notes can interfere with listening skills - Audio/Video recordings can be used
36
Interviewer listening skills
Be aware of non-verbal communication and show interest to maximise information received
37
Closed questions
Choose from fixed responses (easy to compare and display)
38
Open questions
Answer in your own words (researcher can pursue a line of enquiry if they give an answer that was not predicted)
39
Questionnaire advantages
- Easy to collect lots of information (quick and convenient) - Easy to score and collate - Easy to replicate
40
Questionnaire disadvantages
- Misunderstanding the question - Low response rates - Sample may be biased (maybe the people who were willing to do the questionnaire had different characteristics to those who weren’t willing)
41
How to write good questions
1. **Clarity** (no double negatives/double barrel) 2. **Bias** (avoid leading questions) 3. **Analysis** (easy to analyse the responses, like in closed questions)
42
Good questionnaire design
1. Filler questions 2. Sequence (start easy, then more sensitive) 3. Pilot study (small scale test) 4. Sampling techniques (be aware of biased samples)
43
Correlation scale
-1 to 1
44
Curvilinear correlation
Positive correlation up till a point and then negative (or vice versa)
45
Correlation advantages
- Establish strength of a relationship - Predictions can be made - Investigate things that cannot be manipulated experimentally (ethically and practically)
46
Correlation disadvanatages
- Cannot show cause and effect - May be a third variable affecting the relationship - Cannot show curvilinear relationships
47
Correlation
Analyse the strength and direction of the relationship between *co-variables*
48
Experiment and correlation difference
Experiments manipulate an IV to see the effect on the DV, so cause and effect is measured. Correlation only shows a relationship
49
Correlation Strength General Rule
- 0-0.1: No correlation - 0.1-0.3: Weak correlation - 0.3-0.5 Moderate correlation - 0.5+ Strong correlation
50
Aim
Precise statement about the purpose of the study, what it intends to find out, and what it is trying to achieve
51
Hypothesis
Specific, testable statement about the expected outcome. Should be **operationalised** Also determine if it will find a *correlation* or a *causation*
52
Correlation
Predicting a relationship between two variables
53
Causation
Researcher predicts difference in DV due to manipulation of IV
54
Null Hypothesis
IV will have no effect on DV
55
Alternative Hypothesis
IV has an effect on the DV
56
Alternative hypothesis categories
Non-directional Hypothesis: No direction is stated Directional Hypothesis: States direction of predicted difference
57
When to use a directional hypothesis
When there is previous research in the field (otherwise use non-directional)
58
Factors to writing a hypothesis
- Test of *causation* or *correlation*? - Null, non-directional, or directional? - Correct tense? - Are all variables included? - Are variables *operationalised*?
59
Pilot study
Small scale investigation to do before research
60
Pilot study purpose
See if any modifications are needed in case of results that were not accounted for. Also determines if it is feasible/worthwhile to do the full study.
61
Sample
A subset of the target population
62
Why isn’t the target population studied?
Would take too long/is expensive
63
Samples should be _________________ of the total population
Representatitive
64
Why must samples be representative
To generalise the findings
65
Random sample
*every member* of the target population has an *equal chance* of being selected
66
Random sampling advantages/disadvantages
**_Advantages_** - Likely to be representative **_Disadvantages_** - Difficult to get full details of target population - Not all members who are selected will be available or willing to take part, which will then make it unrepresentative
67
Systematic sampling
Participants are selected every Nth person in a list
68
Systematic sampling advantages/disadvantages
**_Advantages_** - Much simpler than random sampling **_Disadvantages_** - Can interact with a *hidden, periodic trait*. If it happens to coincide, it will no longer be representative
69
Stratified sampling
- Classify the target population into categories (strata) - Randomly choose from each category to the same proportion as to which they appear in the target population
70
Stratified sampling advantages/disadvantages
**_Advantages_** - All groups in target population are represented **_Disadvantages_** - Time consuming - Need details about all of the target population
71
Opportunity Sampling
Selecting participants who are available and willing to take part
72
Opportunity sampling advantages/disadvantages
**_Advantages_** - Most practical and easy method **_Disadvantages_** - Unlikely to be representative of the target population
73
Volunteer Sampling
People self-selecting to participate. Research is usually advertised for this
74
Volunteer Sampling advantages/disadvantages
**_Advantages_** - Useful to find specific types of people **_Disadvantages_** - People who are likely to volunteer have a different personality to those who do not, this is *volunteer bias*, and makes the sample unrepresentative
75
Participant variables
Characteristics of a participant than may affect the DV
76
How to reduce effects of participant variables
Random allocation to conditions
77
Investigator effects
When the person collecting data has knowledge of the research aim
78
How to mitigate investigator effects
Double-blind technique: Neither participant or investigator knows the hypothesis or conditions
79
Demand characteristics
Participants guess the aims of a study and try to do what is expected of them. Otherwise they could do the opposite to annoy the researcher (*screw you effect*)
80
Types of extraneous variable
- Participant variables - Environmental variables - Investigator effects - Demand characteristics
81
Environmental variables
- The environment effects the DV
82
Mitigation of environmental variables
Standardise the conditions
83
Ethical Factors to consider
*Can Do Cant Do With Participants* C: Consent D: Debriefing C: Confidentiality D: Deception W: Withdrawal P: Protection from harm
84
Peer review considerations
- validity - reliablitity - significance - originality
85
What would reviewers do to a study
- Accept - Accept with revision - Suggest author makes revisions and re-submit - Reject with no possibility of re-submission
86
Peer review panel
- Before research - Research proposal is put forward and assessed for merit
87
Peer review purposes
- Ensure quality and relevant research - Mitigate misinformation - Whether or not to award funding to studies
88
Peer review evalulation
**_Advantages_** - Identifies errors the author is likely to miss - Researcher and reviewers are kept anonymous - Involves a specialist in the field to review, making sure it is understood before publishing **_Disadvantages_** - Journals prefer positive results, which can lead to biased publishings - Can be unfair when reviewers have connections with some universities and may favour research from them
89
Psychology and the Economy
**_Social Influence_** - Encouraging healthy behaviours **_Memory_** - Eyewitness testimony - Increase accurate information - Less money wasted on false imprisonment **_Attachment_** - Paternity leave - Mothers can contribute to economy **_Psychopathology_** - Better treatment for mental health issues - Less time taken off work due to mental illness
90
Quantitative Data
Involves numbers and can objectively be measured
91
Quantitative Data Examples
- Dependent variable - Closed questions - Structures interviews - Tally of behavioural categories in observation
92
Qualitative Data
Involving words and based on subjective interpretation of language
93
Qualitative Data Examples
- Open questions - Transcripts of an unstructured interview - Describing what was seen in an observation
94
Qualitative Data Disadvantages
- Challenging to analyse - Subjective interpretation - Not easy to categorise/collate
95
Primary Data
Collected Directly by Researcher
96
Secondary Data
Collected by someone else, or for a different purpose
97
Meta-analysis
Combining results from many studies on a topic to generalise across larger populations
98
Measures of Central Tendency
- Mean - Median - Mode
99
Measures of Dispersion
Range and Standard Deviation
100
Sign Test
- Calculate differences - Positive or negative - Are positive or negatives less frequent? - S= less frequent - Ignore zero values to get N - Use table to find critical value

Psychology (12 decks)

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