Mid term #1 prep Flashcards
(195 cards)
1
Q
Arch?
A
the study of past human behaviour from material items left behind. These can be ancient items, such as stone tools that are millions of years old. These can also be recent items, such as modern garbage.
2
Q
Science is
A
a means of abstaining from reliable, factual, objective info about the world around us. It relies on observation, reasoning, and evaluation of reliability. Science is self correcting: errors are exposed and re investigated.
3
Q
Underlying Principles Of Science,
A
there is a real knowbvale universe. The universe operates according to understandable rules, laws, or principles. These always are consistent across space and time. These laws can be discerned and understood by people.
4
Q
The scientific method,
A
Observe
Induce general hythopses or possible explanations for what was observed.
Hardest part.
Where people are most likely to go wrong, even scientists.
People tend not to think of every possible explanation, so only a few possibilities get tested.
Deduce specific things that must also be true if the hypothesis is true.
Test hypothesis by checking against the deduced implications.
5
Q
Occam’s Razor-
A
(“entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity”)
To help in selecting and evaluating hypotheses, the explanation or hypothesis that explains a series of observations with the fewest assumptions or leaps of faith is the best explanation of hypothesis.
6
Q
Applying Occam’s Razor: Nazca lines
A
Hypothesis that ancient peruvians built the lines:
Need only assume ancient peruvians:
Were clever
Had seen these animals
Could sight a straight line
Were capable of moving
stones off the desert floor
7
Q
Hypothesis that Extraterrestrials drew the lines, or instructed the Nazca to, or somehow inspired them to do so:
A
- Requires there to be extraterrestrial, intelligent life.
- Requires them to have interstellar craft.
- Requires them to have developed this technology at this particular point in time (Universe is more than 12 billion years old).
- Requires them to be relatively close to earth.
- Requires them to have visited Earth.
- Requires them to need immense and bizarre airfields (that are very rough).
- Requires that they had the odd need to see birds & monkeys & fish drawn on the ground.
8
Q
Lost Knowledge and Technology:
How could places like Stonehenge and the cities of the Maya have been built by ancient people without modern technology?
A
We tend to equate “ancient” with “primitive.”
Human brain has changed little over the last 100,000 – 200,000 years.
Ancient people were likely as intelligent as we are.
The difference? They lacked the accumulated knowledge we possess.
9
Q
The Atlantis Connection:
A
Claims of evidence of atlantis have been identified with practically every corner of the globe
Outside Gibraltar
Crete, or Santorini (volcanic eruption of Thera ~1640 BC; palaces, villas and towns on Crete, as well as (Minoan) sites throughout the Aegean, were destroyed between 1500-1450 BC)
10
Q
Common theme in pseudoarchaeology:
A
Idea that one advanced civilization inspired or contributed otherwise “unexplainable” technology exhibited by some cultures.
Recurring concept: the technology for building pyramids originated in Atlantis.
Both the ancient Egyptians and the ancient Maya learned how to build pyramids from the Atlantains.
11
Q
Common theme in pseudoarchaeology:
A
Idea that one advanced civilization inspired or contributed otherwise “unexplainable” technology exhibited by some cultures.
Recurring concept: the technology for building pyramids originated in Atlantis.
Both the ancient Egyptians and the ancient Maya learned how to build pyramids from the Atlantains.
12
Q
Maya pyramids,
A
Smooth, no stairs, solid fill, One building event, Tomb marker
13
Q
Egyptian pyramids,
A
stepped, stairs, rubble fill, multiple building events, platform for temple
14
Q
Lost Technology: Moving Heavy Stones
A
Common question: “How could ancient Egyptians have built the pyramids when modern engineers cannot?”
Modern engineers can!
3,900 year old, Middle Kingdom, wall painting from the tomb of Djehutihotep.
Statue on sledge is >20 feet tall – weighs more than 57 tons.
176 men pulling on ropes.
Water or oil as lubricant.
Man on statue clapping hands to keep time for pullers.
15
Q
Moving heavy stones,
A
Getting the sides of the stones perfectly flat to fit together without gaps:
In fact, interior stones are rough
Casing stones fit together quite well; “Boning rods” used to check “true”
16
Q
Raising stones:
A
There Are Examples Of Ramps Still In Place at Giza.
Some heavy stones show signs of liver sockets.
Likewise, building Stonehenge was relatively straightforward, but obviously required ingenuity, time, & many workers (but it was built in stages over a couple of thousand years).
17
Q
Baghdad Battery:
A
Discovered 1936 in Iraq.
Ceramic vase with a cylindrical copper tube inside.
Within the copper tube is an iron rod inside held in place by an asphalt plug.
Replicas are claimed to have produced a weak electric current when filled with an electrolyte.
Cited as evidence of advanced knowledge.
Discovered 1936 in Iraq.
Ceramic vase with a cylindrical copper tube inside.
Within the copper tube is an iron rod inside held in place by an asphalt plug.
Replicas are claimed to have produced a weak electric current when filled with an electrolyte.
Cited as evidence of advanced knowledge.
Discovered 1936 in Iraq.
Ceramic vase with a cylindrical copper tube inside.
Within the copper tube is an iron rod inside held in place by an asphalt plug.
Replicas are claimed to have produced a weak electric current when filled with an electrolyte.
Cited as evidence of advanced knowledge.
Virtually any two dissimilar metals will create a mild electrical current when immersed in an electrolyte.
18
Q
Egyptian “light bulb”
A
Bagdhad Battery argued as a source of electricity for light bulbs in ancient Egypt.
19
Q
Problem 1, Bagdhad Battery
A
the “battery” is ~2,000 years old and from Iraq; the “light bulb” is
~4,500 years old and from Egypt.
20
Q
Problem 2, Bagdhad Battery
A
There is ample evidence for oil lamps in Egypt, and for soot on the
ceilings of all temples; no need for other lights
21
Q
Problem 3, Bagdhad Battery
A
when temple was built & carvings done, they were exposed to sunlight; no reason for any kind of light.
22
Q
General public gullibility:
A
They Are truly interested in the past.
Public is not well-informed or well educated.
Little knowledge on how science works.
Not enough scientific exposure.
23
Q
Public Perceptions of Science:
A
Survey of scientific literacy among the general population in the U.S.
Scientifically Literate = ~5%of population
“Informed”and supportive = ~25%
Generallyuninterested = ~70%(but many generally supportive of scientific endeavours)
24
Q
Public misconceptions of archaeology:
A
Do not understand what archaeology (or science) is really about.
Have little ability to evaluate (pseudoarchaeological claims).
Do not understand that it is a scientific discipline that studies people not things.
25
Most people think archaeologists:
Study ancient mysteries.
Study dinosaurs & other fossils (rather than people).
Engage in tomb raiding. Study rocks.
26
The Charlatans:
Nationalism or worse, racism.
Archaeology is commonly used to establish “deep history” of occupation and therefore substantiate a nation’s claim to an area or territory.
27
other misuses for Charlatans,
Nazis–attempts to justify political agenda.
Evidence Of Previous Ownership Of Other territories/countries.
Establish“glorious past”as source of nationalistpride.
Claiming that ancient peoples were not capable of building pyramids, etc., and required help from a “lost civilization” or ETs is really a form of racism (The “Our Ancestors, the Dummies Hypothesis”).
28
Biblical archaeology,
Interest in people of the Near East during that period is attributed to the Bible.
Bible as history.
But also, support for specific claims of religions, and “proof ” of their validity.
29
What is anthropology?
The study of humans.
Including human, biology, behaviour, interaction with the environment and culture.
30
The four fields of anthropology:
Cultural Anthropology, Archaeology, Finding of arch sites, Mapping sites, Evacuation, Profiles, Screening, After excavation: Lab Work, Recognizing Artifacts, Distinguishing Artifacts and Non-Artifacts.
31
Cultural Anthropology
-The study of modern social groups. Typically groups of a different culture that the anthropologists study (studying your own culture is sociology).
- cultural anthropologists frequently study social behaviour, such as belief systems, kinship systems and obtaining or producing food.
32
Archaeology
-study of human behaviour reflected in material culture, specifically artifacts
-exculsivley the study of the past
33
Archaeology
-study of human behaviour reflected in material culture, specifically artifacts
-exculsivley the study of the past
34
Arch sites,
Hunting stands; tool preparation sites; burial sites (whether burial was intentional or accidental); food processing and procurement sites; camp sites; rock art sites, and even cities.
35
Finding of arch sites,
often accidental by usually by systematic survey. An area with a sufficient amount of evidence is considered a site.
36
Mapping sites,
sites mapped and carefully gridded prior to excavation. Remote sensing can be performed which allows for archaeologists a better idea of where buried items are situated.
37
Evacuation,
done by digging small amounts at a time. Levels are often arbitrary in depth, such as 10cm at a time. Allows archaeologists to keep better records of where material is found.
38
Profiles,
after evacuation, records are made of the different layers of soil, their colour and consistency. They're called profiles.
39
Screening,
excavated soils are run through mesh of different sizes, to ensure the small items are not missed.
40
After excavation: Lab Work,
Following excavation, materials are returned to the lab. This is where objects are sorted, cleaned, preserved, classified, and analysed.
Lab analysis usually takes 5-10 times (or more) as much time and work as excavation.
The rule of thumb for both excavation and lab work: the most interesting find(s) will always occur on the last day of work.
41
Recognizing Artifacts,
An artifact is a portable object that has been modified by human (or ancestral human) behaviour. Non-portable artifacts (such as evidence for a fire pit) are referred to as Features or sites. The earliest clearly recognizable artifacts are made of stone. Stone tools are typically referred to as Lithic artifacts.
42
Distinguishing Artifacts and Non-Artifacts,
Many times rocks broken by natural agents will appear to resemble artifacts produced by human manipulation.
43
The presence or absence of a “bulb of percussion”
(When a stone tool is produced, the impact of one stone upon another produces a distinctive type of fracture. This is vaguely shell-shaped, and referred to as a “conchoidal (shell-shaped) fracture” or a bulb of percussion. This type of breakage is extremely rare in naturally occurring breaks. (created only by human activity)
The presence of distinctive patterning.
44
Patterning in Tools,
Although it is rare for natural factors to produce artifact mimics, it is not impossible. The best way to avoid being taken in by mimics is to look for distinctive patterning. An area may produce a realistic mimic or two, but repeated patterning – the same types of tools, breakage patterns, raw materials, etc. – are very unlikely to occur without human activity
45
Physical or biological Anthropology
-biological and physiological study of humans, their ancestors and relatives
-the study of human skeletons, assessing diet, disease, population genetics
46
Linguistic Anthropology
-study of languages
-languages that are strictly verbal, and have no written form
-linguists also work in archaeology when ancient scripts are present
47
Relative dating:
Object $ is older than object £, but we do not know the age of either object.
Objects $ and £, may have been placed a few minutes apart, or millions of years apart; we have no way to tell.
48
Absolute Dating:
We can assign an actual age to an item, such as a stone tool that is 100,000 years old, or a pueblo that was constructed in AD 1124.
49
Methods:
There are several techniques for obtaining dates:
- Potassium-Argon (K/Ar)
- Radiocarbon (14C)
- Obsidian Hydration
- Archaeomagnetism
- Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating)
- Calendar Dates
All dating techniques have limitations and problems associated with them.
50
Radiocarbon Dating,
There are 3 kinds of carbon in the atmosphere: Carbon-12, Carbon-13, and Carbon-14. Carbon-14 is radioactive, and decays at a known and constant rate.
All living things contain carbon, and take carbon in from the atmosphere at a constant rate (roughly 5,700 years = 50% loss).
When a living thing dies, it stops taking in new carbon, and the carbon-14 within it begins to decay (to Nitrogen-13).
It is possible to measure the amount of carbon-14 left in an organic object, either directly, or by estimation (based on counting the amount of decay that happens over 24 hours).
This allows us to estimate the age of an organic object, based on the amount of Carbon-14 remaining in it.
51
Radiocarbon Dating Pros,
provide very accurate age estimates.
Works Organic Material, meaning that we do not have to assume that people were contemporaneous with rocks found miles away.
Relatively inexpensive ($400- $1,500 per sample)
52
Radiocarbon Dating Cons,
Radiocarbon decays relatively fast, meaning that there is an absolute “top end” or maximum age.
Can only be measured in specimens less than about 50,000 years of age.
Really only reliable on specimens of up to about 20,000 years of age.
Is a statistical estimate.
53
Context is,
the spatial relationship between different items encountered by archaeologists.when we excavate, we record the exact position in three dimensions of everything we find.
54
Association,
we also record everything we can about the relationship between items and factors like the soil they were found in, the part of the site they were in, whether they were complete, and so on. Is the relationship known as Association.
55
Artifacts
are not always used in the fashion for which they might appear to function.
56
The screwdriver example,
Everyone knows what a screwdriver is used for – to drive screws
Yet anyone who has ever used a flat- head screwdriver knows that these are not the most efficient way to achieve this task.
In fact, these screwdrivers are much better suited for many other activities – prying things open, scraping, digging, & many others.
If we found this item, we would know how to classify it, but not how it was used by the person who left it behind.
57
Cultures,
concepts of culture and are aware that there are many difficult cultures in the world. Among living people, it is easy to find different cultures.
58
Archeological Cultures,
As a result, archaeologists essentially invent prehistoric cultures. We define these cultures based on physical traces that we can actually see – house style & shape, the types of stone tools & pottery that the group made, the type of lifestyle (hunters & gatherers, farmers, city dwellers) that most people shared, and so forth. If these traces seem similar, we refer to them collectively as a culture. Working since the 1960s. The groups we are identifying don't necessarily correspond to actual groups of people, cultures, who would recognize each other as being apart of the same social world.
Refer to cultures, often as a shorthand, a way of describing a particular place and time in prehistory, where the material culture looks the same.
59
Archeological Cultures: Phases
In the late 1950s, two archaeologists attempted to create a classification system that would break all of the prehistory of the Americas into different distinct time periods, referred to as phases. Essentially, the idea was to create a general chronological sequence – the timing of the appearance & disappearance of different traits – for all of the archaeologically defined cultures. A similar approach was already in use in the American southwest.
60
Two Types of Formation Processes: N-Transforms
Those types of changes brought about by the natural world, rather than cultural events:
- Bone weathering due to surface exposure.
- The formation of caliche on aritfacts due to secretions of calcium in the soil.
- The movement of objects in a coastal midden context due to wave action.
- Burning as a result of forest fires.
- Movement and breakage of artifacts & bone and shell due to burrowing animals.
- The development of gnaw marks due to rodent or carnivore chewing on
61
Two Types of Formation Processes: C-Transforms
Those types of changes brought about by the cultural world, or human activity:
- bone breakage for marrow extraction.
- intentional burning of a body for ritual disposal.
- Breakage of a stone tool during use or manufacture.
- Remodelling of an existing structure, such as a house, for later occupation.
- differential transportation of body parts from a hunting kill site.
62
How sites form,
Items unintentionally left behind can result in the creation of sites. Isolated items. Large groups of items, such as European hoards. Lots of items result in small sizes, or are a part of larger sites.
63
Abandonment (site formations),
most simply abandoned, or never returned to. Most common among mobile populations. Occurs in villages and cities. Sites closely resembling the actual behavioural situation during occupation (other the natural transforms).
64
Context: Systematic vs. Archaeological patterns
of behaviour during site use will have a great influence on the nature of the site. Systematic, will influence archaeological how found after abandonment.
65
Repeated Occupation and Site Formation
Re-use of a site (re-occupation) can transform deposits.
Can result in the movement of items.
Activity areas can change.
Repeated re-use will continue to alter deposits.
Repeated occupations of an area result in multiple depositional units, and often mix deposits.
This also yields multiple instances of the same type of activity in slightly different areas.
This can result in a very confusing pattern of features.
66
Intentional Remodelling,
changes in prehistory weren't always unintentional. Some sites were intentionally changed. Easier to see in sites with architecture, but can be present in hunter-gatherer sites. Results range from minor to dramatic.
67
Ritual Destruction,
known for larger scale sites, particularly cities. Buildings or entire areas are abandoned, these are sometimes ritually destroyed. Difficult to distinguish from later vandalism.
68
Modern Re-use,
sites are routinely altered by modern development. Damage is minor and leaves much of the site intact. Damage is considerable and destroys the entire site or large portions.
69
Artifacts and C-Transforms,
artifacts can be transformed through use. Breakage is a common way for artifacts to be altered. Accidental breakages, representing use or other handling accidents. Can be transformed through intentional modification. Lithic artifacts in particular can be altered by reshaping. Dramatic as to result in tools that might not resemble the original form.
70
Ecofacts and C-Transforms
Bones can be damaged multiple ways after kill
Butchery and marrow extraction common ways humans alter bones
Butchery = cut marks
Marrow extractions = heavily fragmented bones
Tree roots, roots and other plants frequently grow into archaeological sites. These can disturb deposits, and frequently grow directly into skeletal remains. When trees are overturned, this can result in pulling up site materials.
71
Wave Action and Groundwater sites
Wave Action and Groundwater sites are frequently damaged by wave action, which can remove very large areas of archaeological deposits. Sites along watercourses, such as rivers, can also be undercut by changing rates of flow, and by changes in course. Areas where groundwater is not very deep can also result in disturbance to sites.
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Principle goals of arch, the mechanisms of culture change, along with:
Outlining culture histories.
Description and chronological ordering of artifacts.
Spatial distributions – identifying the nature and extent of culture areas.
Data collection, classification, ordering things in time and space.
Reconstructing past life-ways.
Subsistence and Diet, and Settlement and Trade
Explaining culture change.
Identifying and explaining the causes and mechanisms of culture change
73
Archaeologist work location,
In North America, 85-90 percent of all professional archaeologists work as consultants – for both private clients & government clients, as part of Heritage or Cultural Resource Management. They guide their client(s) through the maze of governmental regulations related to heritage & development. Some also engage in research & teaching.
74
Speech and Symbolic Behaviour,
Neanderthals capable of articulate speech based on skeletal anatomy.
Neanderthals capable of articulate speech based on skeletal anatomy.
75
Neanderthals speak a Different language then modern homo sapiens
Speak controlled largely by the position of the hyoid bone (adam's apple), the vocal cords attach.
Skeleton at Kebara Cave intact hyoid bone, position of suggested vocal capabilities similar to modern humans.
Analysis of auditory structures of neanderthals suggests the ability to perceive sounds in the same frequencies as modern humans.
Possible reflection of need to hear types of sound patterns in human speech, definitively demonstrate cognitive ability to use language.
76
Neanderthal ear bones
appear to have evolved for hearing speech in addition to other sounds.
Sounds and words represent specific concepts, suggesting symbolic abilities.
Tonal languages are still in use in many areas today.
77
Subsistence
Tar, extracted from birch bark, used as glue to hold points in place on spears (at least 200,000 years ago).
Patterns of trauma in Neandertal remains match those of contemporary rodeo performers, indicating close proximity to prey.
78
Bone chemistry shows
that Neandertals were essentially meat eaters—one individual’s diet appears to have been 97% meat.
Research suggested that rotting meat may be partially responsible for the isotopic signatures seen in Neandertal skeletons.
More recent analysis indicates that fresh meat was the primary part of the Neandertal diet.
79
Maritime Subsistence,
recent study in Portugal shows the presence of Neandertals camps sites dating between 86,000-106,000 years old some 2km from the coast.
Remains of molluscs, crustaceans, fish, birds, marine mammals like dolphins and seals appear to comprise ~50% of the diet from these sites. Maritime subsistence practices, but also the use of nets or bags to carry materials from the coast to the campsite.
80
Fire Use,
Recent discovery in Italy indicates Neandertals using fire 170,000 years ago. Evidence from a series of probable digging sticks – wooden artifacts that had been intentionally shaped & burned to harden them. It is unclear, however, whether Neandertals were able to start fires on their own. Recent research suggests that starting fires may begin as early as 50,000 years ago.
81
Neanderthal Cave Art,
Long believed Neandertals did not make (or were incapable of making) cave paintings. Impossible to date cave paintings directly. Possible to date carbonate layer that forms over paintings, giving minimum age. Three cave sites in Spain all date minimally to 64,800 years ago – at least 20,000 years before the arrival of modern humans.
82
Neanderthal Sailors,
Neandertal-style tools discovered on Crete date to 130,000 years ago. Other tools discovered throughout the region are of types manufactured from 200-50,000 years ago. Unclear whether all of these areas were islands at these times, but suggests the ability of Neandertals to cross over water. Humans used flotation to get to Australia ~60,000 years ago.
83
Ghost Lineage,
statistically derived phenomenon where DNA clearly belongs to a distinct population, but we do not know which population. Statistical modelling shows relatively recent gene flow from Neanderthals into modern humans, along with earlier gene flow from the ancestors of modern humans into early Neanderthals. Also indicates gene flow from a ghost (unknown) population into the Denisovan lineage. Ghost lineage must have been in some area of Eurasia at the same time as Neanderthals & Denisovans.
84
Neanderthals fate,
Few argue Neandertals evolved into anatomically modern humans. Most researchers feel Neanderthals were replaced by anatomically modern humans. Debate over degree of breeding, although most researchers now accept that this happened, with at least two major Neanderthal gene infusions into modern populations.
85
Neanderthal DNA,
DNA now routinely studied for materials up to roughly 10,000 years old. DNA is nearly impossible to find for fossilised materials. DNA has been extracted from a dozen Neandertal fossils from. Earliest Neandertal genome analysed is from Siberia 120,000 years ago.
86
mDNA studies
suggest Neandertals were genetically more different from contemporary Homo sapiens populations than modern human populations are from each other – roughly 3 times as different. Formerly estimated that Neandertal & modern human lineages separated between 690,000 & 550,000 years ago. Recent reanalysis suggests the split was 400,000 – 800,000 years ago.
87
Arguments against interbreeding occurred
only rarely. Had more exchanges occurred, we would be neanderthals. If interbreeding had been more common, resulting hybrid populations died off before leaving a significant imprint on the human genome. The amount of neanderthal DNA making its way into modern human genomes would appear more patchy and variable than it currently does.
88
Neanderthal Extinction: How?
Recent computer simulations suggest that the only factor that can explain the rapid demise of Neandertals is their being out-competed by modern humans.
Neandertals had survived for nearly 300,000 years in Eurasia, including numerous periods of severe climate change, suggesting that this factor alone would not likely cause their extinction
89
European Early Modern Human: Crô-Magnon,
originated in 1868 consisted of 5 skeletons discovered at a rock shelter in SW France, Abri de Crô-Magnon. Date to ~28,000 years ago. Appear to be intentional burials, based upon placement of associated shells and animal bones.
90
Earliest art: Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Dated ~40,000 years ago. Earliest cave art in Europe, painting behaviour widespread early.
Seeing in darkness: Cave art and stone age, culture gives us the notion of primitive people invariably burning torches to do their painting. Although torches were likely used, stone oil lamps have been found in many sites.
91
Complete Replacement Model: Recent African Evolution,
anatomically modern populations arose in Africa ~200,000-300,000 yrs ago. Migrated from Africa, replacing populations in Europe and asia. Does Not account for transition pre modern forms of homo sapiens anywhere accepts Africa.
92
Regional Continuity Model: Multiregional Evolution,
in Europe, Asia, and Africa continued evolutionary development from archaic Homo sapiens to anatomically modern humans. This argument is that Homo erectus is the species that colonised the entire Old World, and that all modern humans evolved from Homo erectus in different parts of the world. Many researchers argue that it is unlikely that the same types of evolutionary changes would be seen in all hominid populations.
93
Neanderthal DNA In African Populations? For the past 10 years,
it has been argued that modern African populations lack Neanderthal DNA. Recent reanalysis shows this to be untrue: modern African populations actually show ~3% of their genome to be Neandertal. It is thought that this may have arisen from European migrations into Africa over the past 20,000 years, bringing traces of Neanderthal DNA with them.
94
Homo Floresiensis,
a new type of hominid. As old as 90,000 to 100,000 years. Possibly persisted until 12,000 years ago. Nickname Hobbits. The post cranial skeleton is similar to homo erectus. The pectoral girdle suggests a more limited range of movement than in modern humans. Bones of the wrist are argued to be more similar to modern apes than humans, but not well described. Ancestor to hobbits on the same island, ~700,000 years old. Hominins inhabited a savannah like open grassland habitat with a wetland component. Fossils were remains of insular (dwarf) fauna and simple stone technology. Late pleistocene H floresiensis.
95
Peopling of Greater Australia, sea levels follow global temps:
temps rise, sea levels fall. Temps fall, sea levels fall. Roughly 70,000 years ago, ~ 2.2 mill sq. km, “Greater Australia” AKA Sahul
96
Earliest Occupation of Australia,
Recent excavations in Northern Australia revealed potentially very early dates. Minimally 65,000 years, possibly >100,000 years. Materials recovered from Madjedbebe rock shelter. Variety of stone tools & ochre, mineral pigments likely used in artwork. Madjedbebe Rock shelter reveals the evidence of people cooking plants 65,000 years ago. Plants required processing before they could be eaten by people doing activities such as peeling, cooking and pounding. Early inhabitants were quite familiar with these food plants, and devoted a lot of time to food processing and prep.
97
Oceania
contains roughly 25,000 islands and covers 180 million sq. km
98
Melanesia (“dark islands”):
New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomons, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji
99
Micronesia (“small islands”):
north of Melanesia, from Palau to the Marshall islands Polynesia (“many islands”): Hawaii to Easter Island to New Zealand
100
Intruders - The Austronesians
Origin from Island SE Asia 4000- 5000BP.
Austronesian – largest language family in the world – 1200 plus languages.
Expansion into Bismarck Archipelago 3300 Years Ago. Off- shore island settlements.
Development Of a Maritime adaptation.
Develops Highly Distinctive ceramic complex which is referred to as LAPITA.
101
Lapita,
Distinctive ceramics with dentate (tooth-like) stamping. Stone tools. Shell tools (including fish-hooks) & ornaments.
102
Lapita Culture,
Lapita Culture, Quickly spreads eastward into the Pacific: Tonga: 2,800 years ago
Samoa, Cook & Society Islands 2,500 years ago
Hawaii & Easter Island ~1,600 years ago
New Zealand ~1,000 years ago
Sometime post 1,000 years ago: introduction of Sweet Potato from South America.
No genetic evidence of South American people travelling into the Pacific Islands.
103
Lapita Pottery Decoration,
Applied with dentate stamp, incised, shell impressed, notching.
On pots, motif fields bordered & bounded.
Variety of geometric & curvilinear motifs.
Clearly tracks expansion of Austronesian peoples across Oceania.
Disappeared by 2500 years ago in different areas throughout Oceania.
104
The Long Pause - Tonga/ Samoa,
1800 years in Tonga/Samoa. No further expansion. Ancestral Polynesian homeland. Development of distinctive Polynesian cultural templates. Ancestral Polynesian Society. Template later transported eastward – common features of Polynesian Cultures.
105
Eastward Bound - One More Time, great debate.
Polynesian discovery of the new world. New zealand, the last frontier.
106
Skeletal Evidence,
biological anthropologists argue race doesn't exist, more variation within races, than between them. Forensic anthropologists recognize 3 races from skeletons: caucasoid, mongoloid, negroid. First nations/ native americans classified as mongoloid.
107
Paleoamerican Morphology,
mongoloid individuals typically have shovels shaped incisors. Caucasoid individuals generally lack this trait. The early skeletal remains for America lack shovel shake incisors, meaning the typical features of indigeionous people. Skeletons, mostly incomplete ones, are more than 9,000 yrs from North america. One common trait: few are similar to indeginous living in North America today. Cranially, look vaguely caucasoid, over mongoloid. Cause of controversy among archaeologists and native people. Argumentation that europeans colonised first then americas.
108
Paleoamerican Morphology, One common trait:
few are similar to indeginous living in North America today. Cranially, look vaguely caucasoid, over mongoloid. Cause of controversy among archaeologists and native people. Argumentation that europeans colonised first then americas.
109
The Solutrean Hypothesis,
Solutrean argued by some to be the only Old World archaeological culture that meets criteria for an ancestral Clovis candidate. 1. Older than Clovis (~21,000-17,000 BP). 2. Technology similar to Clovis down to minute details of typology & manufacture technology. 3. The two cultures share many unique behaviours. Solutrean flintknappers used exotic raw materials, such as quartz crystal, chalcedony, agate, & jasper for bifaces. Also left caches of exquisite over-sized bifaces that may not have been intended for secular use. The use of exotic raw material and caching of superbly made large bifaces were also part of Clovis cultural behaviour.
110
The Solutrean Hypothesis Rebuffed,
clovis points always fluted on both faces;l 92% of >400 known texas clovis points fluted on both faces. Solutrean points aren't fluted. Proponents of the Solutrean hypothesis dismiss fluting in Clovis as nothing ‘special’, merely part of the thinning process. This claim is odd, given the ubiquity of this feature in Clovis, & its nearly universal absence in all other North American lithic assemblages, save those of Folsom groups who immediately followed.
111
Haplogroup X and the Migrating Eurpoeans,
genetic studies of PaleoAmericans showed a distinctive genetic sequence (then) unknown in east Asia but found near the Mediterranean in extreme west Asia. This led to the argument that Europe may have been the point of origin of some of the first colonisers of the Americas. More recent aDNA studies show that this same distinctive genetic grouping (haplogroup X) is indeed found in east Asia & is the likely source of the pattern seen in the Americas. Genetic studies conclusively show that the first Americans did not originate in Europe.
112
Migrations and Ancient DNA (aDNA),
A recent study indicates that some South American natives (particularly in Amazonia) have genetic ties to Australasians – native peoples of Australia, New Guinea, & the Andaman Islands. Timing of DNA migration unknown. Some researchers argue that the Australasian DNA admixture is relatively recent. Others suggest it is ancient, originating in an extinct population called “Population Y.” Population Y argued to have contributed genes to both PaleoAmericans and Australasians.
113
Comet Impact and the End of Clovis,
Evidence for comet impact or impacts (mostly in Greenland, some in Chile) roughly 12,800 years ago. Major climate shift, leading to megafauna extinctions. Appears to have had a major impact on Clovis culture / technology, which largely disappears at the same time. Geologically, an event known as the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis.
114
Folsom (12,900 to 12,000 years ago),
Rapid transition from Clovis to Folsom ~12,900 BP. Maybe less than 100 years.No transitional point forms between Clovis and Folsom. Folsom persists until ~12,200- 12,000 years ago. Far West & Great Plains only. VERY few Folsom sites east of the Mississippi. “Clovis” continues in east and north with emphasis shifted to hunting caribou. Fluted point manufacture becomes very highly refined – almost elevated to an art-form. Much smaller, finer flaking than Clovis points. Highly oriented toward bison hunting. Variety of large and small game (antelope, deer, rabbits, fowl).
115
PaleoAmerican:
term used to describe earliest peoples in the Americas. Referred to as Paleoindian in older literature
116
PaleoAmerican:
term used to describe earliest peoples in the Americas. Referred to as Paleoindian in older literature
117
Ice-Free Corridor:
an area between the eastern & western glaciers, connecting modern Alaska and the continental USA. People entered North America from Asia over the land bridge and followed the IFC into there's to North America. Long argued to be the only possible migration route.
118
Glaciation & Glacier:
enormous ice sheets covering northern North America.
119
Beringia & Bering Land Bridge:
landmass connecting modern Alaska and Siberia, caused by lower sea levels during glaciation.
120
Clovis:
the earliest named PaleoAmerican culture, famous for distinctive spear points.
121
Megafauna:
giant, ice-age animals (such as mammoth), now extinct, but present during earliest occupations of the Americas.
122
Beringia Refuge Hypothesis:
people entered land bridge areas and stayed there for perhaps several thousand years before moving into the rest of the Americas. Resulted In Genetic Isolation. Phylogenetic structure suggests that ancestors of Native Americans paused when they reached Beringia. Allowed New World founder lineages to differentiate from their Asian sister-clades. Pause in movement was followed by a swift migration southward that distributed the founder types all the way to South America.
123
Coastal Migration:
people followed the Pacific Coast, island hopping (including coastal areas of the mainland) and following coastal resources from Asia to multiple points on the Pacific Coast.
124
Into the New World: Coastal Route,
Over the last 30 years, a coastal migration route along the Pacific Northwest has gained favour. No real reason that people had to be restricted to any particular land route. Australia settled (by sea) at least 45,000 years ago. No evidence of coastal sites on the Pacific Coast of North America dating earlier than roughly 15,000 years ago. Earlier sites may be underwater.
125
Both Ice- Free & Coastal routes,
Recent reanalysis suggests that both the ice-free corridor & the coastal routes are viable entrances to the Americas. Current data support both as being in use, perhaps at the same time.
126
Aleo-Seafaring,
If a coastal / island-hopping route into the New World is at all correct, PaleoAmericans must have had the technology to travel along coastlines. They must also have subsisted on coastal resources. Evidence for both of these becoming more widespread. Newer model of coastal migration route referred to as the kelp highway. Kelp forest ecosystems may have played a huge role in facilitating the movement of maritime peoples from Asia to the Americas near the end of the Pleistocene. Kelp forests cool nearshore waters along rocky coastlines. Forests are some of the most productive habitats on earth. Pacific Rim kelp forests support or shelter a wealth of shellfish, fish, marine mammals, seabirds, and seaweed. Resources heavily used historically by coastal peoples.
127
Classic Clovis Tools,
The Base of the toolkit was a large biface. This is a large flake, with smaller flakes taken off of both sides. Served as tools, tool blanks, or as forms for point manufacture. Most distinctive component of the toolkit is: fluted point. Most tools are made on large flakes much like Old World Middle Palaeolithic tools.
128
Plains. Reality:
Clovis points found throughout North America.
Similar points found in South America.
Actually more Clovis east of Mississippi, but sites are later.
129
Clovis Fluted point Density Maps,
Despite the common notion that Clovis is a western phenomenon, more sites are present in eastern North America.
130
Pre-Clovis,
occupational evidence is still fairly new. Many early sites were highly controversial. No “name” for occupations. Not defined as homogeneous culture. Evidence is very scarce. Dates at least to 16-15,000 years ago. Possibly earlier.
131
Site situated within a sand dune. Micromorphology studies of soils suggest minimal disturbance of cultural levels. Below Clovis level were several blades, projectile points, and a scraper. Radiocarbon date (on soil) associated with blades is 16,670+730 BP.
Cactus Hill, Virginia, USA.
132
Clovis materials present, and possibly cultural levels below Clovis. Luminescence dating suggests an age of 13,000 BP. Chert blades, bruins, & the “Topper Chopper” may be part of pre-Clovis tool assemblage. Recent dates suggest people were 50,000 years ago!
Topper, South Carolina, USA.
133
Early site in Texas with steady source of fresh water. Unusual for having both Clovis & later materials. Recent excavations show substantial pre-Clovis occupation. Dates to 16-20,000 years ago. Wide variety of stone tools in use. Heavy dependence not on big game, but on small animals (especially turtles) & plant resources. More than 150,000 artifacts found from early occupation.
Gault,
134
Friedkin Site,
Friedkin site in Texas. Has yielded multiple examples of projectile points (spear points) that predate Clovis. These are stemmed, rather than f luted (different than Clovis). Between 3-4 inches in length. Date to approximately 15,500 years Ago. Predates Clovis by roughly 2,000 years.
135
Reported in 2017, argued to provide evidence for mastodon butchery & dismemberment in California as early as 130,000 years ago. Argument is that damage to deeply buried mastodon bones are the result of these being struck with direct or indirect blows with heavy stone tools. Results in distinctive types of bone breakage, consistent with human activities of dismemberment & marrow extraction. Interpretation of the site has been heavily criticised by archaeologists. Most argue that the authors ignored several key lines of evidence, particularly the fact that the mastodon site was directly below an area of ongoing highway construction, with lots of heavy equipment in use (which impacted the site).
Cerutti Mastodon site,
136
Small site excavated in late 1980s (since partly destroyed). Amazing preservation of organic artifacts and ecofacts. Radiocarbon dates to at least 15,000 years ago. Some date as early as 30,000 years ago. Still highly controversial, but wider acceptance than 20 years ago.
Monte Verde, Chile.
137
Monte Verde,
excavation revealed preserved animal meat & wild potato, exotic seaweed,
wooden lances, mortars, & architectural elements, all on the 14,500-year-old surface.
138
Human footprint, dating to 16,500 years ago. In a similar area to the (now later dated) Monte Verde site. Footprint found in association with a variety of bone, wood, & stone tools. Might suggest a habitation site. Footprint interpreted as that of a barefoot male, weighing approximately 70 kg.
Pilauco, Chile.
139
Recent radiocarbon dating of materials excavated in the late 1960s brought surprising results. Several specimens of hare, rabbit, & deer bones yielded dates as early as 33,000 years ago. This would potentially place human occupation of the cave during the last glacial maximum, a time when much of North America would have been uninhabitable by humans. These bones are found in association with what might be minimally worked stone tools, possibly suggesting very early use of this cave by humans.
Coxcatlan Cave, Mexico.
140
Recently published analysis of a series of human footprints from New Mexico suggest that these were made between 21,000 and 23,000 years ago. The 60 footprints appear to have been made primarily by children & teenagers, suggesting that these individuals may have been playing in the area. The route taken to enter New Mexico is unclear at this point.
White Sands, New Mexico.
141
1950s, Gordon Willey & Philip Phillips proposed a series of criteria that distinguish the Archaic & PaleoAmerican periods.
Adaptations include:
Shift toward increased reliance on small animal and plant foods.
New technologies for food processing and cooking develop.
Reduced mobility.
Systematic burial of the dead.
Peopling the New World: The Archaic.
142
Settlement changes resulted in large base camps in both riverine & upland wetland settings. Corresponds with increasing importance of aquatic food resources like shellfish, fish and aquatic turtles. Eating shellfish resulted in creation of large refuse mounds along rivers. Mounds (middens) are argued to be an important part of the cultural landscape. Middens also contain significant amounts of carbonised nutshell, particularly hickory. Hickory nutshells dominate most major botanical assemblages dating to the later Archaic & Early Woodland Periods.
Archaic Settlement Shifts,
143
Increased nutshell frequency results from expansion of oak- hickory forests. Nutshell quantities in middens suggest people managing nut- tree stands. Deliberately clearing areas around trees to maximise nut production. Suggests people be part of the plant management process. Indicates a new perspective on the human-plant relationship.
Archaic Hickory Nut Use,
144
Towards end of the Archaic, some groups adopted low-level food production. A variety of resources were produced, such as domesticated chenopodium, sumpweed, & sunflower. Sites still yield vast quantities of hickory, walnut, acorn, & chestnut shell. The Riverton site (Illinois) produced a combination of high frequencies of nutshell and a complete domestic crop complex, including chenopod, sunflower, marsh elder, & bottle gourd, at 3800 BP.
Archaic Use of Chenopodium,
145
High mobility & non-permanent habitation.
Little midden (garbage) accumulation around sites.
Relatively simple technology.
Limited resource base of medium to large game.
Low population density with marginal habitats unpopulated.
PaleoAmerican
146
Seasonal sedentism & scheduling of annual movements.
Midden accumulation due to specialisation in resource rich areas.
Relatively complex technology with ground stone tools, fishing equipment, bow & arrow, food boiling.
Resource diversification to more and smaller game species.
Increased population density with expansion into marginal areas.
Archaic
147
Settlement changes resulted in large base camps in both riverine & upland wetland settings. Corresponds with increasing importance of aquatic food resources like shellfish, fish and aquatic turtles. Eating shellfish resulted in creation of large refuse mounds along rivers. Mounds (middens) are argued to be an important part of the cultural landscape. Middens also contain significant amounts of carbonised nutshell, particularly hickory. Hickory nutshells dominate most major botanical assemblages dating to the later Archaic & Early Woodland Periods.
Archaic Settlement Shifts,
148
Increased nutshell frequency results from expansion of oak- hickory forests. Nutshell quantities in middens suggest people managing nut- tree stands. Deliberately clearing areas around trees to maximise nut production. Suggests people be part of the plant management process. Indicates a new perspective on the human-plant relationship.
Archaic Hickory Nut Use,
149
Towards end of the Archaic, some groups adopted low-level food production. A variety of resources were produced, such as domesticated chenopodium, sumpweed, & sunflower. Sites still yield vast quantities of hickory, walnut, acorn, & chestnut shell. The Riverton site (Illinois) produced a combination of high frequencies of nutshell and a complete domestic crop complex, including chenopod, sunflower, marsh elder, & bottle gourd, at 3800 BP.
Archaic Use of Chenopodium,
150
● Dry summers.
● Winter rains.
● Rains provide enough precipitation to support vegetation ranging from woodlands to open park woodland.
● South & east of the Fertile Crescent, the open park woodlands give way to steppes & true deserts.
The Fertile Crescent, Area of Mediterranean climate characterised by:
151
Archaeological record clearly shows that the shift to an agricultural way of life in the Middle East was a process. There was no “agricultural revolution”. The transition to agriculture can be traced through a number of stages.
Development of Agriculture,
152
Horticulture: small-scale cultivation of crops using hand tools. Agriculture: farming of large plots of land employing ploughs.
Horticulture and Agriculture
153
employs fertilisers and/or irrigation.
intensive agriculture
154
“New Stone Age”
Neolithic changes appear to be the result of the trend begun during the Upper Palaeolithic & emphasised during the Mesolithic:
Intensification of resource procurement
Neolithic
155
Settlement size increased during this period.
First evidence of communal structures appears.
Most impressive of these structures is Jericho tower.
9 m high
Undressed stone & mud brick
Attached to the inside of a massive wall
Houses continue to be circular, but settlements larger than Natufian ones
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, dates between 12,000-10,800 years ago. Late in a prolonged dry period.
156
Corresponds to a period of improved climate.
● Round houses give way to rectangular houses.
● Settlement size increases significantly.
● Rectangular houses allow sites to be more densely packed than previously.
● Villages often show a high degree of planning. No sense that the regular layout of the sites reflects the presence of centralised authority.
Pre-pottery Neolithic B, dates between 10,800- 8,500 years ago.
157
Shift from foraging for food. Dependence on domesticated plants & animals.
Neolithic Domestication,
158
human manipulation through artificial selection, either intentionally or unintentionally, generally resulting in genetic changes in a species that prove beneficial to humans.
Earliest evidence of plant domestication seen in figs from Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period.
Farming developed during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period.
A wide range of domesticated crops is found including:
Cereals: emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley
Pulses: lentils, peas
Legumes: bitter vetch, chickpeas
Domestication:
159
Neolithic distinct from previous periods because of shift away from tools made on bladelets.
● This period’s toolkit is made on blades (which are larger).
● Emphasis on arrowheads.
● Toolkit includes:
● Sickles
● Ground stone axes
● Adzes
● Grinding stones for processing grains found in extremely large quantities.
● Pre-Pottery B sites exhibit highly developed use of plaster.
Early Neolithic Technology,
160
Complete,well-preserved skull of an adult male, 30 - 40 years of age at the time of death.
Facial Mask Highly Detailed.
Upper Lower Eyelids overlap the shell inlay of the eyes in a naturalistic manner.
The Nose, complete with nostrils, cheeks, brow ridge also reproduced realistically, creating a unique image.
A small upper lip is still present, but damage to the skull resulting in the loss of the plaster coat for the lower lip & chin.
This Damage Reveals That The Tooth Sockets(both upper & lower) are empty.
Because the plaster coat Would Have Protected from post-mortem tooth loss, it is probable that the teeth were removed prior to the modelling of the face.
Plastered Skulls,
161
Ceramics (to keep grains dry and rodent-free).
Plough; once draft animals domesticated ~ 8,000 years ago.
Woven textiles from plant fibres and animal hair (flax & wool, SW Asia; cotton, South America).
Permanent housing from mud-dried bricks, stone, wattle & daub, etc.
Neolithic Technology, Appearance of ground and polished stone tools (hence, “New Stone Age”).
162
Ceramics (to keep grains dry and rodent-free).
Plough; once draft animals domesticated ~ 8,000 years ago.
Woven textiles from plant fibres and animal hair (flax & wool, SW Asia; cotton, South America).
Permanent housing from mud-dried bricks, stone, wattle & daub, etc.
Neolithic Technology, Appearance of ground and polished stone tools (hence, “New Stone Age”).
163
Neolithic peoples appear to have been egalitarian. Egalitarian society: a society that recognizes few differences in wealth, power, prestige, or status. There are no elaborate or public buildings. No suggestion of institutionalised religion or formal means of government.
Neolithic Social Structure,
164
Characterised by the development of pottery manufacture. Stone tools, expedient tools, made on local materials with minimal energy investment. Characterised by a limited number of large sites and small dispersed hamlets. Large sites are not densely packed. Symbolic artifacts tend to be stylized animal figurines.
The Late Neolithic,
165
Late Neolithic Subsistence,
Importance of hunting continuously declines throughout the period. Evidence for animal domestication includes changes in the shape of goat horns. Despite symbolic emphasis on bulls, the main source of meat was domestic goats. Earliest pottery is not linked to evidence for the use of cattle for their milk. Analysis of residues in Neolithic ceramic vessels failed to find traces of dairy products. Cheese was produced 7,200 years ago, in what is now Croatia. People still relied on the full range of plants domesticated in the Early Neolithic. World population changes since the beginnings of food production. There has been an explosion in human populations densities in the past 10,000 years.
166
long-occupied: evidence of use for at least 1,000 years starting 11,700 years ago. Enclosures were rebuilt many times. Monoliths may have been carved multiple times. At the end of site use, enclosures filled with domestic debris (chipped stone, animal bones and plant remains).
Finally Gobekli Tepe,
167
most sites north of the equator. In many, evidence for the earliest animal domestication seems to be earlier than that for the earliest plant domestication. Thought to have involved both indigenous and introduced species. Intensified hunting, gathering and fishing sites.
Intensified hunting-gathering,
168
There are 3 major regions where plants were indigenously domesticated in Africa:
The development of agriculture in Africa involved:
Indigenous domestication of plants.
Possibly the indigenous domestication of animals.
The adoption of Middle Eastern domesticated plants.
The adoption of animals domesticated in the Middle East.
Domestication in Africa,
169
Wheat
Barley
Lentils
Sheep & goats
Origin of domesticated cattle unclear
Domesticates from Middle East include:
170
Most dominant feature of the North African landscape today. Current desert environment developed in the Sahara only within the last 4,000 - 5,000 years. 14,000 - 4,500 years ago: considerably more rainfall. Extensive human occupation of the region was possible before it became a desert.
The Sahara Desert,
171
domesticated animals introduced before domesticated plants in much of North Africa. Cattle, sheep, and goats appear to have been incorporated into mobile hunter-gatherer societies. Mobile societies with economies focused on maintaining herds of domesticated animals are called pastoral societies.
African Pastoralists,
172
Rice was domesticated along the Yangtze and Huai river valleys, China by 9,000 years ago. Millet was domesticated in the Yellow river alley, china by 8,000 years ago. New research suggests millet domestication by 10,000 years ago. Research indicates that the site of Cishan has pushed back the date for the domestication of millet to roughly 10,000 years ago.
Domestication in East Asia,
173
marsh plant. Cultivation requires the replication of marshy conditions. Feeds on blue - green algae that must slowly circulate past. Dry conditions and drying out of the rice fields can prove disastrous.
Wild Rice,
174
distribution of sites containing domestic rice remains in East and Southeast Asia. Suggest that the transition from hunting and gathering to farming took place in the Yangzi Valley.
Agricultural communities spread via river valleys to the west and south. Probably relates to the spread of austro-asiatic languages. Today, these are found from eastern india to Vietnam, and from southern china to the Nicobar Islands.
Rice Agriculture and Language,
175
Yangshao Culture. The Neolithic village of Banpo near Xian was defended by a deep ditch, beyond which lay the cemeteries. Houses within were circular and widely spaced apart.
Defended Neolithic Village,
176
● Yangshao villages consisted of both round semi-subterranean houses and rectangular houses built on the surface. ● Wild plants & animals exploited.
● Millet was fully domesticated as were dogs & pigs.
● Pottery vessels were made in many forms with elaborate painted decorations.
Development of Chinese Farming Societies,
177
much of Europe thickly forested. rivers, coasts and wetlands offered rich environments for hunter-gatherers. Introduction of agriculture led to plains and river valleys becoming population centres. Growing demand for raw materials and pasture led to greater use of upland regions.
Europe 10,000 years ago,
178
Farming much later in Europe than in Southwest Asia (Middle East). Southwest Asia almost 12,000 years ago. Earliest European farmers appear in Greece ~9,000 years ago.
Origins of Farming in Europe,
179
Does the idea of farming through trade contacts?
Does the technology of farming through trade contacts?
Diffusion?
180
Do Near Eastern farmers move into Southeastern Europe? From Anatolia.
Dates match.
Pattern matches.
Migration?
181
- Standardised construction.
- Seen as patterns of post holes with long lateral pits from which the daub (adobe) for the wattle walls was extracted.
- Internal groups of massive timber posts supported the pitched roof (covered in thatch) which rested on and overhung the side walls.
- Northern end was often more massively built of split timber planks in a trench.
- Occasionally the whole of the outer wall was of timber plank construction.
- Extravagant use of such large timbers may be a response to the forested settings in which these houses were built.
Bandkeramik Longhouse,
182
Small groups of longhouses would have been associated with fields & cattle pens in forest clearings. Settlements appear divided into individual residence plots. Each would have one or two longhouses at any one time, together perhaps with the remains of other earlier houses that had been abandoned and left to decay.
Reconstructed Bandkeramik Settlement,
183
edge of a Cardium (cockle) shell used to impress decoration into the surface of the vessel before firing. Characteristics pottery of early farming communities of west mediterranean. First made about 7,600 years ago. Preceded by non-cardoum decorated “impressed ware”. Marks the spread of pottery and domesticates into southern France and eastern Spain beginning around 8,000 years ago.
Cardial Ware Ceramics,
184
exact origins of domesticated maize (corn) unclear. Earliest known evidence of a wild relative is pollen from Tehuacan Valley which dates to 80,000 years ago. Long before human habitation of the new world.
Origins of Maize Agriculture,
185
Long argued that maize (Zea mays) was a domesticated form of a grass called Teosinte (Zea mexicana), which grows wild in cornfields
Teosinte, however, appears to be a hybrid of Zea mays & another wild relative Tripsacum (Zea tripsacum).
Maize thought to be domesticated separately in Mexico and South America, and cultivated in Mesoamerica by about 7,500 BP.
Traditional view: Origins of Maize Agriculture,
186
Early forms of maize had small, hard seeds, similar to popcorn.
Wild progenitor probably was a small plant with a single stalk, with reduced husks covering the kernels
A single mutation resulted in the reduction of the chaff, which allowed for the production of a larger cob with more, larger kernels.
Human activity helped this along, probably through both selective breeding and accident.
Maize Domestication,
187
The earliest crops were: Leren, arrowroot, & C. Calathea allouia (leren) & Maranta moschata squash (and bottle gourd) are found in northern South America & Panama 10,200-7600 years ago. Arundinacea (arrowroot), both grown for their tubers. Squash (Cucurbita moschata, Cucurbita ecuadorensis, & possibly Cucurbita argyrosperma).
Bottle gourd
Maize
Manioc
Peanuts
Avocado
Pacay (Inga feullei), tree crop.
Indicates probable northern South American origins.
Earliest crop complexes were neither seed, tree, nor root crop based but rather mixtures of these different elements.
Archaeobotanical Data,
188
Earliest dates for maize in eastern North America 2000-1800 B.P. Rare in the Early/Middle Woodland; played a minor role in the diet. Throughout the woodland period, hunting and gathering continued to be key elements of subsistence along with the cultivation of a wide variety of local domestication.
Woodland Subsistence,
189
by beginning Late Woodland, maize as far north as Ontario. Maize cultivated throughout much of eastern North America by 1,700 years ago. Isotope analysis of skeletal remains indicates that maize did not play a major role in the diet until about 1000 years ago.
Maize Agriculture in eastern North America,
190
Maize was routinely ground prior to cooking. Used to make tortillas and similar cakes. Grinding of corn (& other seeds) was accomplished with grinding stones. Referred to as manos & metates. These items are ubiquitous throughout parts of the world where maize was grown.
Food Preparation,
191
Maize was routinely ground prior to cooking. Used to make tortillas and similar cakes. Grinding of corn (& other seeds) was accomplished with grinding stones. Referred to as manos & metates. These items are ubiquitous throughout parts of the world where maize was grown.
Food Preparation,
192
Maize appears to have been brought from Mexico into South America at least 6,500 years ago (probably much earlier).
Maize then bred separately in both continents, resulting in the diversity of forms seen today.
DNA work still ongoing to determine which forms originate in which locale.
Maize into South America,
193
Domesticated beans from Guitarrero Cave have been directly dated to 4,300 years ago.
Quinoa seeds have been found in layers 5,700-4,500 years old at Panaulauca Cave.
Earliest evidence for domesticated potatoes 4,000-3,000 years ago.
Probably not the earliest domesticated potatoes because they were found along the coast, not where wild potatoes grow.
Llamas & alpacas (camelids) domesticated beginning 10,000-5000 years ago.
The other domesticated Andean animal is the guinea pig.
Timing of guinea pig domestication is unknown, but perhaps after camelids.
Andean Domestication,
194
Period named for abundance of cotton seeds and absence of pottery.
Sites are often quite large, with monumental architecture.
Cotton preceramic diet consisted primarily of fish and shellfish.
A wide range of domesticated plants including gourds, squash, chilli pepper, beans and jicama where grown.
Dominant crop species was cotton, used for making textiles and nets.
The Cotton Preceramic,
195
Archaeological research in the Amazon basin is rare until recent years.
Now showing considerable evidence that the Amazon basin was a major area of plant domestication.
Appear to have been domestic plants (squash, beans, tree crops) as far back as 8,000 years ago.
Also appears to have been a second centre of maize domestication (along with Mexico).
Planet Domestication in Amazonia,
