Mid term #1 prep Flashcards
Arch?
the study of past human behaviour from material items left behind. These can be ancient items, such as stone tools that are millions of years old. These can also be recent items, such as modern garbage.
Science is
a means of abstaining from reliable, factual, objective info about the world around us. It relies on observation, reasoning, and evaluation of reliability. Science is self correcting: errors are exposed and re investigated.
Underlying Principles Of Science,
there is a real knowbvale universe. The universe operates according to understandable rules, laws, or principles. These always are consistent across space and time. These laws can be discerned and understood by people.
The scientific method,
Observe
Induce general hythopses or possible explanations for what was observed.
Hardest part.
Where people are most likely to go wrong, even scientists.
People tend not to think of every possible explanation, so only a few possibilities get tested.
Deduce specific things that must also be true if the hypothesis is true.
Test hypothesis by checking against the deduced implications.
Occam’s Razor-
(“entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity”)
To help in selecting and evaluating hypotheses, the explanation or hypothesis that explains a series of observations with the fewest assumptions or leaps of faith is the best explanation of hypothesis.
Applying Occam’s Razor: Nazca lines
Hypothesis that ancient peruvians built the lines:
Need only assume ancient peruvians:
Were clever
Had seen these animals
Could sight a straight line
Were capable of moving
stones off the desert floor
Hypothesis that Extraterrestrials drew the lines, or instructed the Nazca to, or somehow inspired them to do so:
- Requires there to be extraterrestrial, intelligent life.
- Requires them to have interstellar craft.
- Requires them to have developed this technology at this particular point in time (Universe is more than 12 billion years old).
- Requires them to be relatively close to earth.
- Requires them to have visited Earth.
- Requires them to need immense and bizarre airfields (that are very rough).
- Requires that they had the odd need to see birds & monkeys & fish drawn on the ground.
Lost Knowledge and Technology:
How could places like Stonehenge and the cities of the Maya have been built by ancient people without modern technology?
We tend to equate “ancient” with “primitive.”
Human brain has changed little over the last 100,000 – 200,000 years.
Ancient people were likely as intelligent as we are.
The difference? They lacked the accumulated knowledge we possess.
The Atlantis Connection:
Claims of evidence of atlantis have been identified with practically every corner of the globe
Outside Gibraltar
Crete, or Santorini (volcanic eruption of Thera ~1640 BC; palaces, villas and towns on Crete, as well as (Minoan) sites throughout the Aegean, were destroyed between 1500-1450 BC)
Common theme in pseudoarchaeology:
Idea that one advanced civilization inspired or contributed otherwise “unexplainable” technology exhibited by some cultures.
Recurring concept: the technology for building pyramids originated in Atlantis.
Both the ancient Egyptians and the ancient Maya learned how to build pyramids from the Atlantains.
Common theme in pseudoarchaeology:
Idea that one advanced civilization inspired or contributed otherwise “unexplainable” technology exhibited by some cultures.
Recurring concept: the technology for building pyramids originated in Atlantis.
Both the ancient Egyptians and the ancient Maya learned how to build pyramids from the Atlantains.
Maya pyramids,
Smooth, no stairs, solid fill, One building event, Tomb marker
Egyptian pyramids,
stepped, stairs, rubble fill, multiple building events, platform for temple
Lost Technology: Moving Heavy Stones
Common question: “How could ancient Egyptians have built the pyramids when modern engineers cannot?”
Modern engineers can!
3,900 year old, Middle Kingdom, wall painting from the tomb of Djehutihotep.
Statue on sledge is >20 feet tall – weighs more than 57 tons.
176 men pulling on ropes.
Water or oil as lubricant.
Man on statue clapping hands to keep time for pullers.
Moving heavy stones,
Getting the sides of the stones perfectly flat to fit together without gaps:
In fact, interior stones are rough
Casing stones fit together quite well; “Boning rods” used to check “true”
Raising stones:
There Are Examples Of Ramps Still In Place at Giza.
Some heavy stones show signs of liver sockets.
Likewise, building Stonehenge was relatively straightforward, but obviously required ingenuity, time, & many workers (but it was built in stages over a couple of thousand years).
Baghdad Battery:
Discovered 1936 in Iraq.
Ceramic vase with a cylindrical copper tube inside.
Within the copper tube is an iron rod inside held in place by an asphalt plug.
Replicas are claimed to have produced a weak electric current when filled with an electrolyte.
Cited as evidence of advanced knowledge.
Discovered 1936 in Iraq.
Ceramic vase with a cylindrical copper tube inside.
Within the copper tube is an iron rod inside held in place by an asphalt plug.
Replicas are claimed to have produced a weak electric current when filled with an electrolyte.
Cited as evidence of advanced knowledge.
Discovered 1936 in Iraq.
Ceramic vase with a cylindrical copper tube inside.
Within the copper tube is an iron rod inside held in place by an asphalt plug.
Replicas are claimed to have produced a weak electric current when filled with an electrolyte.
Cited as evidence of advanced knowledge.
Virtually any two dissimilar metals will create a mild electrical current when immersed in an electrolyte.
Egyptian “light bulb”
Bagdhad Battery argued as a source of electricity for light bulbs in ancient Egypt.
Problem 1, Bagdhad Battery
the “battery” is ~2,000 years old and from Iraq; the “light bulb” is
~4,500 years old and from Egypt.
Problem 2, Bagdhad Battery
There is ample evidence for oil lamps in Egypt, and for soot on the
ceilings of all temples; no need for other lights
Problem 3, Bagdhad Battery
when temple was built & carvings done, they were exposed to sunlight; no reason for any kind of light.
General public gullibility:
They Are truly interested in the past.
Public is not well-informed or well educated.
Little knowledge on how science works.
Not enough scientific exposure.
Public Perceptions of Science:
Survey of scientific literacy among the general population in the U.S.
Scientifically Literate = ~5%of population
“Informed”and supportive = ~25%
Generallyuninterested = ~70%(but many generally supportive of scientific endeavours)
Public misconceptions of archaeology:
Do not understand what archaeology (or science) is really about.
Have little ability to evaluate (pseudoarchaeological claims).
Do not understand that it is a scientific discipline that studies people not things.
Most people think archaeologists:
Study ancient mysteries.
Study dinosaurs & other fossils (rather than people).
Engage in tomb raiding. Study rocks.
The Charlatans:
Nationalism or worse, racism.
Archaeology is commonly used to establish “deep history” of occupation and therefore substantiate a nation’s claim to an area or territory.
other misuses for Charlatans,
Nazis–attempts to justify political agenda.
Evidence Of Previous Ownership Of Other territories/countries.
Establish“glorious past”as source of nationalistpride.
Claiming that ancient peoples were not capable of building pyramids, etc., and required help from a “lost civilization” or ETs is really a form of racism (The “Our Ancestors, the Dummies Hypothesis”).
Biblical archaeology,
Interest in people of the Near East during that period is attributed to the Bible.
Bible as history.
But also, support for specific claims of religions, and “proof ” of their validity.
What is anthropology?
The study of humans.
Including human, biology, behaviour, interaction with the environment and culture.
The four fields of anthropology:
Cultural Anthropology, Archaeology, Finding of arch sites, Mapping sites, Evacuation, Profiles, Screening, After excavation: Lab Work, Recognizing Artifacts, Distinguishing Artifacts and Non-Artifacts.
Cultural Anthropology
-The study of modern social groups. Typically groups of a different culture that the anthropologists study (studying your own culture is sociology).
- cultural anthropologists frequently study social behaviour, such as belief systems, kinship systems and obtaining or producing food.
Archaeology
-study of human behaviour reflected in material culture, specifically artifacts
-exculsivley the study of the past
Archaeology
-study of human behaviour reflected in material culture, specifically artifacts
-exculsivley the study of the past
Arch sites,
Hunting stands; tool preparation sites; burial sites (whether burial was intentional or accidental); food processing and procurement sites; camp sites; rock art sites, and even cities.
Finding of arch sites,
often accidental by usually by systematic survey. An area with a sufficient amount of evidence is considered a site.
Mapping sites,
sites mapped and carefully gridded prior to excavation. Remote sensing can be performed which allows for archaeologists a better idea of where buried items are situated.
Evacuation,
done by digging small amounts at a time. Levels are often arbitrary in depth, such as 10cm at a time. Allows archaeologists to keep better records of where material is found.
Profiles,
after evacuation, records are made of the different layers of soil, their colour and consistency. They’re called profiles.
Screening,
excavated soils are run through mesh of different sizes, to ensure the small items are not missed.
After excavation: Lab Work,
Following excavation, materials are returned to the lab. This is where objects are sorted, cleaned, preserved, classified, and analysed.
Lab analysis usually takes 5-10 times (or more) as much time and work as excavation.
The rule of thumb for both excavation and lab work: the most interesting find(s) will always occur on the last day of work.
Recognizing Artifacts,
An artifact is a portable object that has been modified by human (or ancestral human) behaviour. Non-portable artifacts (such as evidence for a fire pit) are referred to as Features or sites. The earliest clearly recognizable artifacts are made of stone. Stone tools are typically referred to as Lithic artifacts.
Distinguishing Artifacts and Non-Artifacts,
Many times rocks broken by natural agents will appear to resemble artifacts produced by human manipulation.
The presence or absence of a “bulb of percussion”
(When a stone tool is produced, the impact of one stone upon another produces a distinctive type of fracture. This is vaguely shell-shaped, and referred to as a “conchoidal (shell-shaped) fracture” or a bulb of percussion. This type of breakage is extremely rare in naturally occurring breaks. (created only by human activity)
The presence of distinctive patterning.
Patterning in Tools,
Although it is rare for natural factors to produce artifact mimics, it is not impossible. The best way to avoid being taken in by mimics is to look for distinctive patterning. An area may produce a realistic mimic or two, but repeated patterning – the same types of tools, breakage patterns, raw materials, etc. – are very unlikely to occur without human activity
Physical or biological Anthropology
-biological and physiological study of humans, their ancestors and relatives
-the study of human skeletons, assessing diet, disease, population genetics
Linguistic Anthropology
-study of languages
-languages that are strictly verbal, and have no written form
-linguists also work in archaeology when ancient scripts are present
Relative dating:
Object $ is older than object £, but we do not know the age of either object.
Objects $ and £, may have been placed a few minutes apart, or millions of years apart; we have no way to tell.
Absolute Dating:
We can assign an actual age to an item, such as a stone tool that is 100,000 years old, or a pueblo that was constructed in AD 1124.
Methods:
There are several techniques for obtaining dates:
- Potassium-Argon (K/Ar)
- Radiocarbon (14C)
- Obsidian Hydration
- Archaeomagnetism
- Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating)
- Calendar Dates
All dating techniques have limitations and problems associated with them.
Radiocarbon Dating,
There are 3 kinds of carbon in the atmosphere: Carbon-12, Carbon-13, and Carbon-14. Carbon-14 is radioactive, and decays at a known and constant rate.
All living things contain carbon, and take carbon in from the atmosphere at a constant rate (roughly 5,700 years = 50% loss).
When a living thing dies, it stops taking in new carbon, and the carbon-14 within it begins to decay (to Nitrogen-13).
It is possible to measure the amount of carbon-14 left in an organic object, either directly, or by estimation (based on counting the amount of decay that happens over 24 hours).
This allows us to estimate the age of an organic object, based on the amount of Carbon-14 remaining in it.
Radiocarbon Dating Pros,
provide very accurate age estimates.
Works Organic Material, meaning that we do not have to assume that people were contemporaneous with rocks found miles away.
Relatively inexpensive ($400- $1,500 per sample)
Radiocarbon Dating Cons,
Radiocarbon decays relatively fast, meaning that there is an absolute “top end” or maximum age.
Can only be measured in specimens less than about 50,000 years of age.
Really only reliable on specimens of up to about 20,000 years of age.
Is a statistical estimate.
Context is,
the spatial relationship between different items encountered by archaeologists.when we excavate, we record the exact position in three dimensions of everything we find.
Association,
we also record everything we can about the relationship between items and factors like the soil they were found in, the part of the site they were in, whether they were complete, and so on. Is the relationship known as Association.
Artifacts
are not always used in the fashion for which they might appear to function.
The screwdriver example,
Everyone knows what a screwdriver is used for – to drive screws
Yet anyone who has ever used a flat- head screwdriver knows that these are not the most efficient way to achieve this task.
In fact, these screwdrivers are much better suited for many other activities – prying things open, scraping, digging, & many others.
If we found this item, we would know how to classify it, but not how it was used by the person who left it behind.
Cultures,
concepts of culture and are aware that there are many difficult cultures in the world. Among living people, it is easy to find different cultures.
Archeological Cultures,
As a result, archaeologists essentially invent prehistoric cultures. We define these cultures based on physical traces that we can actually see – house style & shape, the types of stone tools & pottery that the group made, the type of lifestyle (hunters & gatherers, farmers, city dwellers) that most people shared, and so forth. If these traces seem similar, we refer to them collectively as a culture. Working since the 1960s. The groups we are identifying don’t necessarily correspond to actual groups of people, cultures, who would recognize each other as being apart of the same social world.
Refer to cultures, often as a shorthand, a way of describing a particular place and time in prehistory, where the material culture looks the same.
Archeological Cultures: Phases
In the late 1950s, two archaeologists attempted to create a classification system that would break all of the prehistory of the Americas into different distinct time periods, referred to as phases. Essentially, the idea was to create a general chronological sequence – the timing of the appearance & disappearance of different traits – for all of the archaeologically defined cultures. A similar approach was already in use in the American southwest.
Two Types of Formation Processes: N-Transforms
Those types of changes brought about by the natural world, rather than cultural events:
- Bone weathering due to surface exposure.
- The formation of caliche on aritfacts due to secretions of calcium in the soil.
- The movement of objects in a coastal midden context due to wave action.
- Burning as a result of forest fires.
- Movement and breakage of artifacts & bone and shell due to burrowing animals.
- The development of gnaw marks due to rodent or carnivore chewing on
Two Types of Formation Processes: C-Transforms
Those types of changes brought about by the cultural world, or human activity:
- bone breakage for marrow extraction.
- intentional burning of a body for ritual disposal.
- Breakage of a stone tool during use or manufacture.
- Remodelling of an existing structure, such as a house, for later occupation.
- differential transportation of body parts from a hunting kill site.
How sites form,
Items unintentionally left behind can result in the creation of sites. Isolated items. Large groups of items, such as European hoards. Lots of items result in small sizes, or are a part of larger sites.
Abandonment (site formations),
most simply abandoned, or never returned to. Most common among mobile populations. Occurs in villages and cities. Sites closely resembling the actual behavioural situation during occupation (other the natural transforms).
Context: Systematic vs. Archaeological patterns
of behaviour during site use will have a great influence on the nature of the site. Systematic, will influence archaeological how found after abandonment.
Repeated Occupation and Site Formation
Re-use of a site (re-occupation) can transform deposits.
Can result in the movement of items.
Activity areas can change.
Repeated re-use will continue to alter deposits.
Repeated occupations of an area result in multiple depositional units, and often mix deposits.
This also yields multiple instances of the same type of activity in slightly different areas.
This can result in a very confusing pattern of features.
Intentional Remodelling,
changes in prehistory weren’t always unintentional. Some sites were intentionally changed. Easier to see in sites with architecture, but can be present in hunter-gatherer sites. Results range from minor to dramatic.
Ritual Destruction,
known for larger scale sites, particularly cities. Buildings or entire areas are abandoned, these are sometimes ritually destroyed. Difficult to distinguish from later vandalism.
Modern Re-use,
sites are routinely altered by modern development. Damage is minor and leaves much of the site intact. Damage is considerable and destroys the entire site or large portions.
Artifacts and C-Transforms,
artifacts can be transformed through use. Breakage is a common way for artifacts to be altered. Accidental breakages, representing use or other handling accidents. Can be transformed through intentional modification. Lithic artifacts in particular can be altered by reshaping. Dramatic as to result in tools that might not resemble the original form.
Ecofacts and C-Transforms
Bones can be damaged multiple ways after kill
Butchery and marrow extraction common ways humans alter bones
Butchery = cut marks
Marrow extractions = heavily fragmented bones
Tree roots, roots and other plants frequently grow into archaeological sites. These can disturb deposits, and frequently grow directly into skeletal remains. When trees are overturned, this can result in pulling up site materials.
Wave Action and Groundwater sites
Wave Action and Groundwater sites are frequently damaged by wave action, which can remove very large areas of archaeological deposits. Sites along watercourses, such as rivers, can also be undercut by changing rates of flow, and by changes in course. Areas where groundwater is not very deep can also result in disturbance to sites.
Principle goals of arch, the mechanisms of culture change, along with:
Outlining culture histories.
Description and chronological ordering of artifacts.
Spatial distributions – identifying the nature and extent of culture areas.
Data collection, classification, ordering things in time and space.
Reconstructing past life-ways.
Subsistence and Diet, and Settlement and Trade
Explaining culture change.
Identifying and explaining the causes and mechanisms of culture change
Archaeologist work location,
In North America, 85-90 percent of all professional archaeologists work as consultants – for both private clients & government clients, as part of Heritage or Cultural Resource Management. They guide their client(s) through the maze of governmental regulations related to heritage & development. Some also engage in research & teaching.
Speech and Symbolic Behaviour,
Neanderthals capable of articulate speech based on skeletal anatomy.
Neanderthals capable of articulate speech based on skeletal anatomy.
Neanderthals speak a Different language then modern homo sapiens
Speak controlled largely by the position of the hyoid bone (adam’s apple), the vocal cords attach.
Skeleton at Kebara Cave intact hyoid bone, position of suggested vocal capabilities similar to modern humans.
Analysis of auditory structures of neanderthals suggests the ability to perceive sounds in the same frequencies as modern humans.
Possible reflection of need to hear types of sound patterns in human speech, definitively demonstrate cognitive ability to use language.
Neanderthal ear bones
appear to have evolved for hearing speech in addition to other sounds.
Sounds and words represent specific concepts, suggesting symbolic abilities.
Tonal languages are still in use in many areas today.
Subsistence
Tar, extracted from birch bark, used as glue to hold points in place on spears (at least 200,000 years ago).
Patterns of trauma in Neandertal remains match those of contemporary rodeo performers, indicating close proximity to prey.
Bone chemistry shows
that Neandertals were essentially meat eaters—one individual’s diet appears to have been 97% meat.
Research suggested that rotting meat may be partially responsible for the isotopic signatures seen in Neandertal skeletons.
More recent analysis indicates that fresh meat was the primary part of the Neandertal diet.
