Mid-Term Review Flashcards
1
Q
What is politics and how should we analyze it:
Why is politics so hard to define?
A
- Not sure how wide it is (the state, the family, society)
2. Has negative and positive views towards it (conflict and corruption or noble calling to give back to the people?)
2
Q
What is politics and how should we analyze it:
Why is politics associated with conflict?
A
“All complex societies contain many different interests and values”
3
Q
What is politics and how should we analyze it:
What are the 2 assumptions that make it seem that politics is unavoidable?
A
Assuming that A) someone needs to sort out and reconcile the different values in society and B) all societies must deal with economic scarcity, it seems natural that societies need some type of mechanism to determine how those limited goods will be distributed
4
Q
What is politics and how should we analyze it:
Who defined politics as “who gets what, when, how”?
A
Harold Lasswell
5
Q
What is politics and how should we analyze it:
How do the decisions on economic goods distribution affect society?
A
Determines both the nature and well-being of those living in it
6
Q
What is politics and how should we analyze it:
What else does politics define besides the distribution of economic goods?
A
What is the good life? What type of society do we want to live in? Which values should be prioritized?
7
Q
What is politics and how should we analyze it:
Who pointed out a “central divide” between people’s preferences and what was that division?
A
Stoker; “central divide…has been between those who prefer liberty over equality and those who prefer equality over liberty”
example: better to have the choice of healthcare provider and medical procedure as in the US system (even if you cant pay for it) or to have much less choice but state-funded healthcare as in Canada?”
8
Q
Is politics unavoidable?:
How did Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels define politics?
Is politics unavoidable for them?
A
“Merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another”, meaning that without competing classes (without capitalism) there’d be no politics (politics isn’t unavoidable to them)
9
Q
Is politics unavoidable?:
What did Marx and Engels fail to take into consideration when suggesting communism?
A
Human difference, ambition, and competition, making it too idealistic
10
Q
Is politics unavoidable?:
What is the “end of history” thesis and who proposed it?
A
Francis Fukuyama; liberal democracy has proven its superiority over other systems and it would ultimately prevail around the world and everyone would agree in this method of running a country (democratic government and free enterprise), society reaching then the end point in ideological evolution.
11
Q
Is politics unavoidable?:
What did Francis Fukuyama fail to take into consideration when suggesting his “end of history” thesis?
A
- No agreement about one system of government being superior to all others will likely ever be reached
- For many people, their ethnic or religious identities are more important than being citizens in a common democratic state
- Democratic institutions can be tools for one country to dominate another
12
Q
Political questions:
How are those making the decisions in politics able to enforce them?
A
Power and authority
13
Q
Political questions:
What is the difference between power and authority?
A
Power: implies some form of coercion (those who have it are able to get people to behave in ways that they wouldn’t choose); governments that rely solely on its exercise tend to be inefficient and unstable
Authority: a regime with it hypothetically doesn’t need force because it’s recognized as legitimate; rule by consent of the ruled
Most governments try to convert their power into authority because it lead to an easier, less costly, more stable, leadership. It’s impossible to achieve this fully because someone always disagrees with them and democratic systems aren’t perfect
14
Q
Political questions:
What are the questions students of politics ask?
A
- What values do such decisions serve?
a. Justice or liberty?
b. What does justice and liberty mean? - Is a decision made in the interest of the few, the many, or all?
- Who makes the decisions and who should?
a. Should it be the few, the many, or all? - Is there anything special about democracies?
- Are we under some greater obligation to obey the decisions made?
15
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
Why has political analysis traditionally centered on the state?
A
Because, as Weber said, the state has a “monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force in enforcing its order within a given territorial area”; meaning that the state’s sovereignty makes it the ultimate decider of life and death over individuals (narrow view of politics)
16
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
How can the state be differentiated from the government?
A
The state is a much larger entity, containing not only the political office but also bureaucratic, judicial, military, police, and security institutions
17
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
How can the state be distinguished from civil society?
A
The civil society consists of the body of nongovernmental institutions that link society to the state
18
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
How can the state’s sovereignty be contested?
A
- outside by other countries contesting its borders
- inside by A) internal nations seeking independence or B) Indigenous peoples seeking to have their own rights to self-determination affirmed
19
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
What are examples of civil society institutions?
A
Business organizations
Trade unions (Canadian Union of Public Employees)
Religious institutions
Voluntary organizations
Non-governmental organizations
Interest groups (Council of Canadians, Manning Centre)
Family sometimes included others not
20
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
What is politics for Michel Foucault?
A
The use of power and can thus be found everywhere that people interact
21
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
What is the effect of globalization on the sovereignty of the state?
A
“Forces of globalization place increasing constraints on what individual ‘sovereign’ states can do on their own”
22
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
What is politics for Colin Hay and Leftwich?
A
“The political should be defined in such a way as to encompass the entire sphere of the social” “politics is at the heart of all collective social activity, formal and informal, public and private, in all human groups, institutions and societies.” (wider view 1)
23
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
What is governance and how does it differ from government?
A
Governance draws the boundaries of the governmental process much wider, including not only the traditional institutions of government (Parliament, courts, and bureaucracies) but all other inputs that may influence decisions affecting society (markets, interest groups, business organizations, universities, churches, sport, and the family) (wider view 2)
24
Q
Boundaries of the political: State, Society, and the International community:
What are the 4 even wider definitions of politics?
A
- Feminists
a. Tend to equate the personal and the political as
the latter directly affects the former because of the
continued dominance of men in personal relationships
and in the family - Marxists
a. See politics as economic dominance of one group (bourgeois) over another (working class) - Animal Rights Activists
a. See politics as extending beyond the human
societies; their main arguments are:
b. Animals and humans are both conscious beings
capable of enjoying life and experiencing pain and
suffering
c. Animals are innocent and therefore don’t deserve
human cruelty
d. Treating animals well helps create a more benevolent society - Environmentalists
a. See politics as encompassing the whole natural world
25
The study of politics:
| Who are the "founding fathers" of politics?
Plato and Aristotle
26
The study of politics:
| What are the 3 streams of political study?
1. Political theory and philosophy: the study of political ideas
2. Comparative politics: study of institutions and processes within states
3. Global politics/International relations: relations between states
27
The rise and fall of normative analysis:
| What are the 3 types of political analysis?
1. Normative
a. Asks value questions
(What kind of society & polity do we want?
What is good? What do we ought to want?
Should we always obey the laws of the state?)
2. Empirical
a. Identifies observable phenomena
b. What is opposed to what ought to be
3. Semantic
a. Meaning of the concepts we use
b. Where, why and how we use them
28
The rise and fall of normative analysis:
| What are examples of normative analysis' practical side?
a) a citizen contemplating which party to vote for
b) a legislator contemplating how to vote on a bill
c) a judge deciding a hard case
d) a civil servant facing a discretionary decision on whether to deport an illegal immigrant and his family
e) someone contemplating violent forms of political resistance in a democracy
f) someone contemplating violent forms of political resistance in a non-democracy
g) there's more on the book but I'm tired of typing
29
The rise and fall of normative analysis:
| Why was normative analysis pushed to the side for semantic and empirical analysis?
Normative analysis was regarded as unnecessary because it was difficult to prove and with the rise of positivism and the tentative application of scientific methods to social phenomena, which is easier with semantic and empirical analysis.
30
Deductive and inductive theories of politics:
| How does deductive reasoning work?
1. Based on rational choice analysis
a. This approach originated in the field of
economics and became a tool for political science as
well in the 70s
b. Assumes that humans are essentially “utility
maximizers” rational beings, who will follow the path
of action most likely to benefit them
2. Game theory
a. Individual behaviour applied to particular
situations
b. Reveal how difficult it can be for rational
individuals to reach optimal outcomes
3. Starts with certain fundamental assumptions about human behavior from which hypotheses or theories are deduced before being tested
a. They’re simplifications at best and inaccurate at
worst
b. Tends to fall short on empirical tests
c. Better at predicting outcomes than developing accurate theories (ex.: voting and party competitions and interest group politics)
31
Deductive and inductive theories of politics:
| How does inductive reasoning work?
1. Starts with empirical observations from which explanatory generalizations are drawn
2. Whereas in deductive reasoning the theory comes first and then later observations, inductive reasoning comes first from observations and then later theory
3. Follows the method of scientific inquiry and focuses on importance of scientific method and data collection
4. Correlation>Causation
5. An example is behaviouralism (eg.: voting behavior; quantifiable)
a. Some say we should focus on hypothesizing and then refuting theories instead
b. The hypothesis generated by this method tend to not be explanatory (correlation X causation)
32
The political importance of the state:
| What are the 3 main characteristics of the state?
1. Involves territorial boundaries
2. Consists of complex set of institutions that wield political power (courts, police, educational system, elected legislature, the bureaucracy etc)
3. Is defined in terms of power
33
The political importance of the state:
| What is the sovereign state?
In theory, it's:
1. The highest form of authority in their territory
2. Institution claiming a “monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force” (Max Weber)
3. No state has the right to tell another state what to do
In practice, faces challenges from both inside and outside its borders that limit its autonomy
34
The political importance of the state:
| What is the difference between de jure and the facto sovereignity?
the legal right to rule X the actual ability to wield political power
35
A typology of the state:
| What are the definitions of the typologies of the state based on how much they intervene in society and the economy?
Night-watchman state - minimal state government
| Developmental state - interventionist state government
36
A typology of the state:
What are the definitions of the typologies of the state based on the degree to which their political leaders are subject to the will of the people?
Liberal democracies
Illiberal democracies
Authoritarian states
Totalitarian states
37
A typology of the state:
| What is a night-watchman state?
Ensures internal and external security
Plays small role in civil society
Allows the economic market to operate relatively unhindered
Primary duty is to protect the individuals rights to life, liberty, and property
Doesn’t promote social programs or institutes a welfare state
Influenced classical liberal thought
Popular with libertarians and the New Right
38
A typology of the state:
| What is a welfare state?
The government is responsible for the individual and social welfare of its citizens by means of grants, pensions, and other benefits
39
A typology of the state:
| What is a liberal democracy?
Eg.: Canada, USA, India
Free and fair elections and universal suffrage
High degree of personal liberty and protection of individual rights
Can lead to frustration/anger
40
A typology of the state:
| What is a social democracy?
"The ideology, named from democracy where people have a say in government actions, supports a competitive economy with money while also helping people whose jobs don't pay a lot." (from google)
41
A typology of the state:
| What is an authoritarian state?
Eg.: China, Saudi Arabia
No fair elections
Political rulers lack accountability
The political elite is centered around a group or an individual
42
A typology of the state:
| What is a totalitarian state?
Eg.: Nazi German, Stalinist USSR, Maoist China
Extreme intervention in economic and social life
Absence of public/private distinction
Public repression through violence
43
Theories of the state:
| What is classical pluralism?
1. Society comprises many competing groups all jockeying for political, social & economic influence
2. What governments do reflects the balance of power of those groups; the state regulates, mediates between these groups
3. No one group is predominant, but they're strong in different areas
4. Role of the state is to regulate and mediate between these groups
5. Power in society is diffuse/fragmented - polyarchy
44
Theories of the state:
| What are interest groups?
Organization for defense or promotion of an
| interest or cause
45
Theories of the state:
| What are Sectional groups?
Interest groups which protect the interests of their
| members; e.g.: unions (CUPE), business groups (Chambers of Commerce; the Business Council of Canada)
46
Theories of the state:
| What are cause groups?
Interest groups which promote a particular group or
| ideal; e.g.: Greenpeace
47
Theories of the state:
| What is neo-corporatism?
Theory of the state that says that -
1. Incorporation of economic interests into decision-making process
2. Unlike pluralism, doesn’t see all groups as having equal opportunities to be heard
3. Special attention paid to economic elites
48
Theories of the state:
| What is elitism?
(elitist pluralism)
Argues that all societies are led by a unified, self-conscious elite
“Iron law of oligarchy”: all complex organizations will come under the direction of a dominant group
Elites can be economic, military, administrative, or religious
49
Theories of the state:
| What to pluralists means by stating that political parties are umbrella organizations?
The groups in pluralism are various minorities and political parties must form a majority of minority groups that unite despite their different ideas and interests
50
Theories of the state:
| Why do pluralists think that power is fragmented?
1. political influence isn't based on one particular source (wealth, organization, public support, economic status aren't exclusive to one interest group)
2. "No one group is predominant, but they're strong in different areas". meaning that a group can be influential in one area and not in another (Saskatchewan Wheat Pool - no influence in education or healthcare but very in agricultural policy)
3. influential group's influence is almost always challenged (business groups-trade unions)
51
Theories of the state:
Who challenged classical pluralism by stating that power is more concentrated than we're led to believe in the US? What was Robert Dahl's response?
C. Wright Mills; Dahl admitted to have underestimated the balance of power in decision making and the existence of political elites, but said that despite the hierarchy in political power, it still wasn't an homogeneous elite group but rather elites competing with each other as well
52
Theories of the state:
| What is the continuum of pluralism?
Classical - corporatism - elitism
53
Theories of the state:
| How is neo-corporatism similar and different from pluralism?
similar: shares view that groups are a crucial part of the political system
different: rejects vision that all groups have equal opportunity to e heard
54
Theories of the state:
| Marx argues that the power of the ruling group in capitalist societies is always based on ____?
Its control of the primary economic resource: the means of production
55
Theories of the state:
| What is Marx's view on the capitalist state regarding who controls it?
The economic elite (which is why it's useless to try to chance society by elections)
56
Theories of the state:
| What theory of the state says that the state tends to overstep its bounds for two reasons and what are these reasons?
New Right Theory of the state - advocated by liberal free market thinkers
1. Overpromising of benefits to secure votes; WHAT A SHOCK!
2. Expansion of state bureaucracy for its own benefit→ BIG GOVERNMENT! (creates alliances with interest groups for that/oversupply thesis)
57
Theories of the state:
| How does the new right differ from pluralism?
The state is not neutral, but serves its own interests
| Competing interests do not produce equilibrium, but results in legislative paralysis, I.E. NOTHING GETS DONE!
58
Theories of the state:
| How does New Public Management work?
Privatization / Cutting Taxes / Contracting out of Government Services / Enhanced Trading Relationships / Deregulation / More Foreign Investment
(Reagan, Thatcher and Mulroney)
59
Theories of the state:
| What are the two ways in which elitism and socialism differ?
Elitism places political power in political elites of any sort, socialism focuses on owners of the means of production
socialists believe a communist revolution will bring out a truly egalitarian society and elitist theorists argue that a hierarchical system of power is inevitable
60
Theories of the state:
| What did Mulroney do in Canada as a representative of the New Right?
created a "privatization secretariat" that sold off a number of state-owned enterprises and opened Canada to foreign investments
61
Power and Authority:
| What method does power and authority appeal to respectively?
Coercion and consent/influence
62
Power and Authority:
| Why is it in every state's interest to convert power into authority?
As Goodwin points out, it's much more expensive to coerce people to obey you using man power and equipment than it is to do so by influencing their minds and behavior
63
Power and Authority:
| What are the two alternatives to use of coercion?
Ideological control (associated with elitist and Marxist thought) - eliminates need for constant surveillance
Make ruler legitimate in eyes of the ruled (convert power into authority) Weber - "legal-rational" authority
64
Power and Authority:
| Why isn't all authority legitimate?
Can be obtained through manipulation; Goodwin also points out that authority is different than justice in a state and that in this sense power might be preferable because it's easy to notice and resisted therefore
65
Power and Authority:
| What is Weber's "legal-rational" authority?
Main basis of authority in the modern world; respect because someone holds the office of the president - political institutions are accepted because they are subject to democratic principles
66
Power and Authority:
| How does the Supreme Court of Canada exemplify the distinction between power and authority?
Established right to determine whether or not the laws made by elected members of the Parliament and provincial legislatures are constitutional, but despite not being elected and not having any power of coercion they still hold authority, because the decisions are still accepted without use of coercion
67
Power and Authority:
| Why do all states need both power and authority?
As Hobbes and Graham point out, there's always a minority that might disagree even in a democracy and might try to rebel and coercion can be necessary and even authoritarian states that rely on power still have some authority
68
Power and Authority:
| Weber on authority
Traditional; Charismatic; Legal-rational
69
Conceptual Questions about Power:
| Is power the same as force?
No; although power can be exercised through threat of force, actual use of force means power failed
Lukes - "having the means of power is not the same as being powerful"
US used force in Vietnam and still failed
70
Conceptual Questions about Power:
| Must power be exercised deliberately?
some say yes to be considered power.
Bertrand Russel - power is "the production of intended results: the unforeseen effect of our influence on others cannot be called power"
taxi drivers and rains (Polsby)
71
Conceptual Questions about Power:
| Is power a good thing?
depends on how it's used//from liberal perspective no
Lukes - "manifold ways in which power over others can be productive, transformative, authoritative and compatible with dignity"
liberals recommend limitations on power, often through separation for balance
can be good - new bridges, new highways
can be bad - tarrifs (nafta trump tarrifs) military
72
Conceptual Questions about Power:
| Can we eliminate power?
no
Foucault says power is everywhere and power relations between individuals are inevitable
lukes (the indecisive dude) says its possible for people to be "more or less free from others' power to live" as you want but 1st must recognize the domination that exists
Indigenous peoples are under no obligation to follow their current leader once the task they've been "elected" for has been done
73
Pluralism and Luke's 3 Dimensions of Power:
| What is the 1st dimension of power?
1. “A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do” (Dahl’ ‘Who governs?’)
2. Think parent over children, taxes, boss over employee
3. Can be illustrated via coercive and non-coercive power
4. Influence attitudes and behaviour as well
5. Via political authority (eg.: government and package of cigarettes)
6. Power as a “relation among people”
7. Government makes a policy decision, via legislation, that requires compliance by the population; may be challenged and debated but it's being done
8. Pluralists argue that, although certain groups interest might exercise power in specific areas no single group will dominate across the range of policy-making
74
Pluralism and Luke's 3 Dimensions of Power:
| what is the 2nd dimension?
1. Power is exercised in less obvious ways, such as when a dominant elite keeps issues that might threaten its interests off the public agenda, limiting contestation to unimportant, “safe” matters
2. Issue of non decision making - behind closed doors or corridors of power; who is making the decision? We don’t really know who is influencing it court order of power city hall washington
3. Force or coercion discourage the bringing forth of issues
4. No offer of choice/discussion
5. Punting the issue
6. Real prospect of failure
7. Potential costs (always impacts any type of decisions that a government is going to make)
75
Pluralism and Luke's 3 Dimensions of Power:
| 3rd dimension?
1. “A may exercise power over B by getting him to do what he does not want to do, but he also exercises power over him by influencing, shaping or determining his very wants” Lukes, 2005
2. Argues that powerful groups can prevent their potential opponents from understanding where the trust interest lies
3. Interests that people would, under different circumstances, objectively prefer are never identified, articulated, or mobilized, and thus are never even considered or discussed as part of anyone’s political agenda
4. Propaganda/spin/speeches - designed to change minds before the decision is announced
5. Eg.: spin - presidential debates, one of the candidate’s officials goes to the media to explain the points they “made”, trying to convince someone to understand something in a certain way
6. pluralists might not identify the decision-making process once the business interests don't need to lobby decision-makers to be heard
76
Pluralism and Luke's 3 Dimensions of Power:
| What is the difference between the first two faces of power and the third one?
1 and 2 political actors are aware of their own interests, 3 may have its demands shaped by an elite group or ruling class
77
Pluralism and Luke's 3 Dimensions of Power:
| What is the difference between the last two faces of power and the first one?
last two are hidden, 1st is public
78
What is democracy?:
| What is democracy?
1. Hard to define, but its core meaning is system of rule in which political power is widely distributed and power in some ways rests with the people
2. Political equality as its central theme
3. generally considered to be a positive term
4. Illiberal democracies have lower voter turnout
79
What is democracy?:
| What is gerrymandering? Who is Elbridge Gerry?
1. electoral district are all drawn based on supposed to be on population, but gerrymandering the district means drawing them based on their political preferences
2. fifth vice-president of the US; signed a bill that created a partisan district in the Boston area that was compared to the shape of a mythological salamander/gerry-mander
80
What is democracy?:
| What are Lively's seven possible democracies?
1. all should govern - everyone involved in
A. legislating B. deciding general policy C. applying laws D. governmental administration
DD
2. all should be involved in crucial decisions
A. general laws B. general policy
DD
3. rulers should be accountable to the ruled
A. must justify their actions and be removable
RD
4. rulers should be accountable by representatives of the ruled
RD
5. rulers should be chosen by the ruled - elections
6. rulers should be chosen by representatives of the ruled
MPs (?)
7. rulers should act in the interests of the ruled
81
What is democracy?:
| From Lively's seven possible democracies, which can/can't be considered democratic?
```
1-4 = democratic
5-7 = not; lacks accountability, rulers can't be removed by ruled
7 = can be democratic and other government types like communism if acting in the interest of the ruled
```
82
What is democracy?:
| What is a direct democracy?
direct rule by the people, traditionally considered possible only in small societies
referendums, recalls, initiatives
83
What is democracy?:
| What is a referendum and what's the difference between it and a plebiscite?
1. a policy question can be submitted to the electorate to the electorate for a vote rather than benign decided exclusively by elected representatives
2. voting in referenda is compulsory. Referenda are binding on the government. A plebiscite is sometimes called an 'advisory referendum' because the government does not have to act upon its decision
3. A. Quebec had referendums in 1980 and 1995 (leave Canada), B. 1992 Newfoundland and Labrador 1949 (join Canada) C. Conscription 1942 (having a draft to join the military)
84
What is democracy?:
| What is a recall?
In BC, recall is a process to remove a member of the legislative assembly (MLA) from office between elections, A registered voter collects signatures from other registered voters in the electoral districts. If required signature threshold is met, the MLA is removed and a by-election is held
The voter organizing the recall petition is called the proponent. For the petition to be successful, the proponent must collect signatures from more than 40% of the voters eligible to sign the petition
More common in the us; see governor Gavin Newsom (D-CA); see governor Arnold Schwarzenegger (R-CA)
85
What is democracy?:
| What are initiatives?
Generally, voters who gather enough approving signatures from fellow voters within a given period of time are able to place a measure before the electorate in a referendum (the number of signatures and the time for collecting them vary from state to state. If the measures passes, it becomes law)
86
What is democracy?:
| What are representative democracies?
Rule by representatives elected by people; citizens delegate power & authority to selected representatives to make public decisions on their behalf: we choose them, and they conduct the business of government for us
Canada - 338 members of parliament to Ottawa
Nova scotia - 55 members of the legislative assembly to Halifax
Us - 435 representatives to congress and 100 senators of the senate
87
What is democracy?:
| What is the difference between UK MPs and members of the House of Representatives in the US?
MPs in UK are allowed to vote according to their conscience independently of their constituents (though it's unlikely they'll completely ignore their views)
Representatives in the lower house of Congress (House of Representatives) in the US, on the other hand, must represent their constituents views
88
Growth of Democracy:
As of the end of 2017
96 out of 167 countries with populations of at least 500,00 (57%) were democracies of some kind, and only 21 (13%) were autocracies
Nearly four dozen other countries - 46, or 28% - exhibited elements of both democracy and autocracy
Share of democracies among the world’s governments has been on an upward trend since the mid-1970s, and now sis just shy of its post-WWII record (58% in 2016)
89
Growth of Democracy:
| How are utilitarianism and pluralism connected to the advent of democracy?
Utilitarianism - extremely influential for democracy, in special liberal democracy; attempt to apply democracy to a class-divided capitalist industrial society; Bentham and Mill (James) argued that leaders will only seek their own happiness rather than that of all unless their positions in power depends on it
Pluralism - even when there are obvious economic elites it doesn't mean that someone will always get their way; free and fair competition levels the political playing field
90
Origins of Democracy:
Demos - people; kratos - power, or rule or authority
Ancient Greek culture, democracy meant government by the many
In some Greek city-states, all citizens participated in making and implementing laws (direct democracy)
Office holders were subject to regular rotation and chosen by the other citizens
note that citizens could only engage in politics because a large portion of society was excluded from this title
great law of peace between North American indigenous peoples
91
Competing theories of democracy:
| What is democratic elitism or “protective” democracy?
```
Joseph Schumpter (1883-1950) - argued that democracy and elitism could be reconciled; masses were easily influenced and their participation is unrealistic, as most people are quite happy to leave politics to the political elites
Masses also tend to have authoritarian values and are easily swayed by charismatic leaders
Elites acts as guardians against the rise of authoritarianism
```
Democratic competition takes place between elites - small group of people exercise considerable power money or prestige are obviously involved (Constitution of Canada - meech lake accord - example Quebec, didn't agree with other political leaders)
92
Competing theories of democracy:
| What is participatory democracy?
Origins in ancient Greece, Rousseau, J.S. Mill, GDH Cole
Participation itself as a virtue
Resurgence in the 60s, coinciding with mass movements of the time in both Europe and North America
If democracy can be defined as political equality, democratic elitism pushes it to its limits
Advocates of participatory democracy must argue that it is neither unrealistic nor undesirable
They must also argue that participation is in fact possible perhaps through referendums
93
Competing theories of democracy:
| If we define democracy as political equality, can protective democracy/democratic elitism be considered one?
No
94
Competing theories of democracy:
| What is deliberative democracy?
Influenced by the ideas of jurgen habermas
True democracy must allow for a range of choices to be developed through discussion and reflection
Public debate increases the rationality and legitimacy of decisions
Political decisions are never set in stone
The citizens assembly, where a randomly selected, diverse and representative group of lay people are brought together to learn about an issue, reach consensus and make recommendations to governments (BC rank ballot)
There are tools for giving people a sense of agency, facilitating learning, transcending polarization, engendering trust in democratic processes, and building agreement and acceptance of policy decisions
In the mid-200s; both british columbia and ontario held citizens’ assemblies on electoral reform
Seen as a way of promoting greater tolerance and altruism (happiness of others) in society
Others argue that extensive debate can only lead to delay in decision making or even political paralysis (can’t do it for everything or nothing happens)
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Competing theories of democracy:
| Why can't deliberative democracy be considered another version of direct participatory democracy?
Quality of participation over quantity; don't believe in direct democracies, also doubt they'd produce the reflective deliberation they seek by suggestions of polling
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Constraints on Freedom:
| What are the 6 types of constraints on freedom?
1. Nondemocratic Government
2. Physical Coercion
3. Physical Incapacity
4. Rationality
5. Psychology
6. Economic Impediments
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Constraints on Freedom:
| Non Democratic government
No necessary relationship between freedom and absence of democracy; benign dictatorship X democratic polity that limits freedom
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Constraints on Freedom:
| Physical Coercion
Imprisonment and slavery
| unfair or discriminatory laws (cost of breaking the law is equivalent to physical constraint)
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Constraints on Freedom:
| Physical Incapacity
only politically relevant with disabilities that could be accommodated
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Constraints on Freedom:
| Rationality
can be limited depending on how rational we are
| children or adults with senile dementia
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Constraints on Freedom:
| Psychology
can be driven to behave in certain ways by external influences that affect the way we think
commercial advertising, education, religion
Antonio Gramsci and cultural hegemony
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Constraints on Freedom:
| Economic Impediments
if freedom=absence of externality, state/society must leave people alone
but some argue states can increase freedom by intervening; if someone cant fully develop freely without a roof over their head
Wollstonecraft
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Negative and Positive Freedom:
| What is negative freedom according to Berlin?
```
freedom from
John Locke (right to non-interference)
```
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Negative and Positive Freedom:
| What is positive freedom according to Berlin?
freedom to
Rousseau (duty of the state to provide a decent standard of living)
Socialist countries - tend to favor positive liberties based on a perceived responsibility to the citizenry
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Negative and Positive Freedom:
| US and Canada
US - tends to favor negative liberties
Speech, religion, assembly; individual autonomy
Positive liberties are seen as potential threats or overly burdensome to capitalism & and the state
Canada - balance between the two
I.e.: Pierre Trudeau’s Medicare (positive freedom), and removed criminal prohibition of same-sex acts (negative freedom)
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Is freedom special?:
| Why should freedom be valued?
A lot of places don’t have freedom; life in prison;
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Is freedom special?:
| What are the justifications of freedom?
No human should have power over another;
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Is freedom special?:
| Is it a basic human right?
Yes here, but in some parts of the world no
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Mill, Utilitarianism, and Freedom:
| What was Mill's view on constraints on freedom?
John Stuart Mill is a utilitarianist, meaning that he values the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest amount of people
He saw freedom as conductive to the greatest amount of happiness, and so he argues for the most freedom possible
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Mill, Utilitarianism, and Freedom:
| Why did Mill believe there shouldn't be censorship no matter what?
true beliefs will gain support when held against objections and false ones are more likely to be denounced if open to public challenge
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Mill, Utilitarianism, and Freedom:
| What is the harm principle? Example
Self-regarding actions are not to be meddled with, but iff actions harm others, there should be prevention by public opinion or the state
associated with negative freedom
Example- paying taxes, if you don’t pay them (which no one likes doing) it could harm others, state won’t have money to pay for services people expect; when you pay them you access them, free covid-19 vaccine, clear sidewalk, streets paved
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The Meaning of Justice:
Basically giving others what they are due or entitled to
A distributional concept - how should different resources (wealth, income, educational opportunities, etc) ought to be distributed
Presupposes scarcity - if we had more than enough resources to go around, there would be no need to agonize over who should have them
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The Meaning of Justice:
| What are the types of justice?
Procedural justice
| Social Justice
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The Meaning of Justice:
| What is procedural justice?
Fairness of the process (or rules) through which an outcome (resolving disputes) is reached (criminal trial - exonerated or convicted)
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The Meaning of Justice:
| What is social justice?
Fairness of the outcome itself (social assistance programs like Old Age security)
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The Meaning of Justice:
| Theories of justice based on need
Associated with socialism, but existence of welfare states indicate that modern liberal democracies also recognize that meeting needs is just
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The Meaning of Justice:
| A Meritocratic theory of justice
Advocated distributing resources to those who display some merit and therefore deserve to be rewarded (in some occupations you’re eligible to merit pay, met target and you get 3% raise)
Rewards can be distributed differently so as to encourage development, use of talent/hard work or a general contribution to society
Calls for an equality of opportunity
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John Rawl's Theory of Justice:
| Part 1
METHOD
Based in a hypothetical “original position” where individuals choose what their future society will look like/organized
Decisions are made behind a “veil of ignorance” (don’t know your class, people assume they’re all the same) so that the individuals will have no idea where they fit in the society (own social positions, intelligence, natural assets, etc)
Also assumes individuals will be self-interested (wanting the best for themselves)
They will also desire “primary goods” such as wealth, good health, education, etc
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John Rawl's Theory of Justice:
| Part 2
PRINCIPLES
1. The liberty principle - Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of Equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of Liberty for all (mainly concerned with the distribution of rights and liberties)
2. Social and economic Inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both
a) The fair opportunity principle - to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged
b) The difference principle - attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality and opportunity (all have reasonable opportunity to acquire the skills on the basis of which merit is assessed; not strictly based on social class or background)
1>2b>2a
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John Rawl's Theory of Justice:
| Critique from the left
Wolff - principle 1 not as egalitarian as it seems; equality of liberties isn't necessary the best, liberty is (and in many cases should be) sacrificed to achieve a basic standard of living
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John Rawl's Theory of Justice:
| Critique from the right
Nozick - put forward a procedural theory focused on property
One is entitled to one’s property so long as it was acquired fairly, therefore redistribution (even through taxation initiated by the state) is unjust
Nozick’s provisos
1.The original acquisition of property has to be fair (no force or fraud)
2,Acquisition cannot go against the essential well-being of others
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Cosmopolitan Theories of Justice:
| What is the cosmopolitan approach?
Increasing interconnectedness of people round the world calls for an expansion of justice beyond the national bounds of the state i.e. global justice (one of the great moral challenges of the age) N/S
Obligations to the whole humanity - loyalties ought to be with human beings as a whole
Means to address inequalities between rich and poor states (trying to bridge the gap)
No agreement as to what the moral obligations actually are to those outsiders who do not belong to our community)
At one end - Singer unlimited obligation where the rich north is obliged to help others in the poor south to the extent that our own standard of living is compromised/eroded
At the other end - Pogge increased redistribution of resources
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What is an ideology?:
1. A belief; a system of beliefs; what one would find ideal
2. Set of related ideas and beliefs designed to
a. describe the existing political order/community
b. present an ideal vision of what the political order should look like
c. prescribe a means to transform the existing into the ideal
3. It spells out a. what is valued and what’s not
b. hat must be maintained and what must be changed
4. It shapes accordingly the attitudes of those who share it
5. Seeks to promote a particular social and political order
6. Contains empirical (observation & experience), semantic (meaning in language or logic), and normative elements (deriving from a standard)
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What is an ideology?:
| Features
Action oriented
Typically less rigorous than “proper” theory
Tends to combine concepts that political philosophers treat separately
Both reflects and shapes the social and historical context within which it emerges
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Left-Right spectrum:
| Ideological left
Equality
Justice
Rights
Prioritize an equitable distribution of resources and a robust social safety net that guarantees a decent quality of life for everyone
Recent thinking - a basic income to ensure that everyone in society has enough income to meet the basic needs of life
More focused on the environment in general
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Left-Right spectrum:
| Ideological right
Law and order
Security
Stability (not really interested in change)
Prioritize balanced budgets, fiscal responsibility overall, business friendly regulations & tax policies to stimulate economic growth
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Liberalism:
Dominant western tradition
Placed in the center of the ”ideological center” in western countries
Originated with the rise of capitalist political economies in the 17th and 18th century
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke - most influential of the early thinkers
*Individualism as central theme - must be held sacred
Focuses on the individual’s right, liberties and responsibilities
Latin liber, meaning “free” (man)
In some countries, it is associated with a free market; in others, most notably the United States with state intervention
Important economic implications for the state
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Classical Liberalism:
Adam Smith and Herbert Spencer
Emphasis on limiting the role of the state to providing a) internal and external security, b) enforcement of property rights
Also, a moral dimension in that a limited state maximizes individual freedom and rewards those who work hardest
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New Liberalism:
Thomas Hill Green, Leonard Hobhouse, John Hobson
Late 1800s, early 1900s
Emphasis on social reform
State intervention could increase liberty by expanding individual opportunity
The new liberalism dominated the political landscape for much of the 20th century
Medicare, social reform
Cpp - canada pension plan
Old age security (oas)
