Midterm 1 Flashcards
(207 cards)
1
Q
Signals coming from ___ ____ project to MTL
A
Signals coming from IT cortex project to MTL
2
Q
Medial temporal lobe (MTL) structures are extremely important for ____ (e.g. parahippocampal cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus)
A
Medial temporal lobe (MTL) structures are extremely important for memory (e.g. parahippocampal cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus)
3
Q
Observations that developing expertise in something can lead to recruitment of the FFA for associated stimuli supports the ____ hypothesis, which is a counter to the idea that the FFA is intrinsically ‘hardwired’ to respond to faces, which some people have argued
A
Observations that developing expertise in something can lead to recruitment of the FFA for associated stimuli supports the expertise hypothesis, which is a counter to the idea that the FFA is intrinsically ‘hardwired’ to respond to faces, which some people have argued
4
Q
fusiform face area (FFA)
A
has neurons which tend to respond best to faces
5
Q
neurons in the ____ ____respond to more complex stimuli than neurons in ___
A
neurons in the inferotemporal (IT) cortex respond to more complex stimuli than neurons in V1
6
Q
As a general principle, as the signal originating from the eye continues to get routed through various neural pathways, the complexity of what the neurons in those regions of the brain respond to ____
A
As a general principle, as the signal originating from the eye continues to get routed through various neural pathways, the complexity of what the neurons in those regions of the brain respond to increases
7
Q
Ganel experiment was designed to demonstrate a separation of perception and action in ‘healthy’ subjects (i.e. without brain damage). There were 2 conditions: ____ length estimation vs ____ length estimation
A
Ganel experiment was designed to demonstrate a separation of perception and action in ‘healthy’ subjects (i.e. without brain damage). There were 2 conditions: passive length estimation vs grasping length estimation
8
Q
patient D.F. demonstrated a ___ ____ as a result of damage in their ventral pathway in a gas leak, he was NOT able to match orientation of sample card (____) _____ (‘____’ condition) but WAS able to match orientation if ____ ____ ___ ______ (‘____’ condition)
A
patient D.F. demonstrated a double dissociation as a result of damage in their ventral pathway in a gas leak, he was not able to match orientation of sample card (held by the experimenter) while holding it in their hand (‘passive’ condition) but was able to match orientation if physically placing card in a slot (‘action’ condition)
9
Q
Dorsal stream shows function for both ___ and for ___
A
Dorsal stream shows function for both location and for action
10
Q
Both ventral and dorsal pathways:
- Originate in the ____ and continue through ____ different types of ganglion cells in the LGN (____ and ___, ____ neurons are more sensitive to colour and fine detail)
-Have some ___
-Receive ___ from ___ brain areas
A
Both ventral and dorsal pathways:
- Originate in the retina and continue through two different types of ganglion cells in the LGN (magnocellular and parvocellular, parvocellular neurons are more sensitive to colour and fine detail)
-Have some interconnections
-Receive feedback from higher brain areas
11
Q
The dorsal and ventral pathways demonstrate a classic ___ ___: two functions that involve different mechanisms and operate independently
A
The dorsal and ventral pathways demonstrate a classic double dissociation: two functions that involve different mechanisms and operate independently
12
Q
Removal of ____ lobe tissue resulted in problems with the landmark discrimination task (implicating the ___ pathway, or ___ stream), though not the ___ task
A
Removal of parietal lobe tissue resulted in problems with the landmark discrimination task (implicating the where pathway, or dorsal stream), though not the OD task
13
Q
Removal of ____ lobe tissue resulted in problems with the object discrimination task (implicating the ____ pathway, or ___ stream), though not the ___ task
A
Removal of temporal lobe tissue resulted in problems with the object discrimination task (implicating the what pathway, or ventral stream), though not the LD task
14
Q
for the landmark discrimination problem the monkey was trained to look for food ___ a specific object
A
for the landmark discrimination problem the monkey was trained to look for food next to a specific object
15
Q
for the objection discrimination problem the monkey was trained to look for the food ____ a specific object
A
for the objection discrimination problem the monkey was trained to look for the food under a specific object
16
Q
Lesioning or ablation experiments follow 4 steps…
A
- An animal is trained to indicate perceptual capacities
- A specific part of the brain is removed or destroyed
- The animal is retrained to determine which perceptual abilities remain
- The results reveal which portions of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours
17
Q
Neuroimaging allows us to ___ ___ ____-___ ___ (which measure firing of individual neurons) and look at the distributed pattern of activity in the cortex in response to stimuli as a ___
A
Neuroimaging allows us to move beyond single-cell recordings (which measure firing of individual neurons) and look at the distributed pattern of activity in the cortex in response to stimuli as a whole
18
Q
As active neurons ‘use up’ oxygen in the nearby supply of blood, this makes the hemoglobin more ___ and changes it’s response to the magnetic field. fMRI can estimate changes in the activity level of specific areas of the brain by ____ ___ in the ___ ___ of ____ to the ___ ___
A
As active neurons ‘use up’ oxygen in the nearby supply of blood, this makes the hemoglobin more magnetic and changes it’s response to the magnetic field. fMRI can estimate changes in the activity level of specific areas of the brain by detecting changes in the magnetic response of hemoglobin to the magnetic field.
19
Q
Although we cannot directly measure cognitive activity, blood flow provides a correlate that can be used to make inferences about ___ ___ (e.g. increased blood flow = increased ___)
A
Although we cannot directly measure cognitive activity, blood flow provides a correlate that can be used to make inferences about neural activation (e.g. increased blood flow = increased activation)
20
Q
Cortical magnification
A
a small area of the fovea is represented by a large area on the visual cortex
21
Q
The organization of V1 represents an ‘electronic map’ of the retina which is ___ : two points that are ___ ___ on an object (and thus are also ___ ___ on the retinal image formed by looking at the object) are also represented in parts of the cortex that are ___ ___
A
The organization of V1 represents an ‘electronic map’ of the retina which is retinotopic : two points that are close together on an object (and thus are also close together on the retinal image formed by looking at the object) are also represented in parts of the cortex that are close together
22
Q
Because horizontal and vertical lines are more common in our environment, this should promote the development of ___ ___ ___ that respond to those kinds of stimuli
A
Because horizontal and vertical lines are more common in our environment, this should promote the development of more feature detectors that respond to those kinds of stimuli
23
Q
oblique effect
A
vertical and horizontal lines are more easily identified than oblique lines by most humans
24
Q
In theory, neurons that respond to whatever stimuli are present in the environment will become more ___ due to ____ ___
A
In theory, neurons that respond to whatever stimuli are present in the environment will become more predominate due to neural plasticity
25
Selective rearing
raising animals in environments that contain only certain types of stimuli (while depriving exposure to other kinds)
26
The orientation that is most affected by selective adaptation is ___
The orientation that is most affected by selective adaptation is vertical
27
The general experimental procedure for testing selective adaptation:
1) Measure ___ to range of one stimulus property (e.g. orientation), which can be taken as your ‘___’ response
2) ___ neurons with extended ___ of stimuli that have the property being tested
3) ____ the ____ to range of that same stimulus property
The general experimental procedure for testing selective adaptation:
1) Measure sensitivity to range of one stimulus property (e.g. orientation), which can be taken as your ‘baseline’ response
2) Adapt neurons with extended exposures of stimuli that have the property being tested
3) Remeasure the sensitivity to range of that same stimulus property
28
To test for contrast gratings difference in ____ can be changed
To test for contrast gratings difference in intensity can be changed
29
To test for sensitivity to orientation the gratings ___ relative to vertical is changed
To test for sensitivity to orientation the gratings angle relative to vertical is changed
30
the typical stimuli used for selective adaption are called ___ and are made of ____ ___ and ___ bars
the typical stimuli used for selective adaption are called gratings and are made of alternating light and dark bars
31
Fatigue or adaptation to stimulus causes a decrease in both:
- ____ firing of those neurons
- the response of those neurons to ___ ___ of the ___ they have been adapted to
Fatigue or adaptation to stimulus causes a decrease in both:
- baseline firing of those neurons
- the response of those neurons to repeated presentations of the stimuli they have been adapted to
32
Selective Adaptation
a phenomenon in which neurons tuned to specific stimuli properties fatigue with prolonged exposure to stimuli containing those properties
33
Method of limits
used to determine absolute thresholds
34
Absolute Threshold
smallest amount of energy needed to detect a stimulus
35
Simple cortical cells
excitatory and inhibitory areas arranged side by side. Responds best to bars of a particular orientation
36
Complex cortical cells
respond best to movement across the receptive field of particularly oriented bar
37
Orientation tuning curves
plot the response of a simple cortical cell to line stimuli of varying orientations
38
The major types of feature detectors in the V1 are....
simple cortical cells, complex cortical cells and end-stopped cortical cells
39
Feature detectors are oriented __ ___ __ different from the ____ receptive fields seen in the retina and ____
Feature detectors are oriented side-by-side different from the centre-surround receptive fields seen in the retina and LGN
40
Feature detectors have receptive fields with ___ ____ ___ ___ ___
Feature detectors have receptive fields with both inhibitory and excitatory areas
41
Neurons that fire in response to specific features of a stimulus are called ___ ___
Neurons that fire in response to specific features of a stimulus are called feature detectors
42
LGN ___ more information from the cortex than it ___ to the cortex, suggesting a backward flow of information that may constitute a ___ mechanism
LGN receives more information from the cortex than it sends to the cortex, suggesting a backward flow of information that may constitute a feedback mechanism
43
More ‘___’ (a larger signal) is sent from the eye to the LGN, as compared to what is passed along from the __ to ___ (suggesting the LGN may ___, or ___, what information is passed along to ___)
More ‘information’ (a larger signal) is sent from the eye to the LGN, as compared to what is passed along from the LGN to V1 (suggesting the LGN may regulate, or filter, what information is passed along to V1)
44
LGN cells have ___ receptive fields
LGN cells have centre-surround receptive fields
45
LGN accounts for ___ nerve fibres leaving the eye
LGN accounts for ~90% nerve fibres leaving the eye
46
Superior colliculus receives signals from the eye and is important for ___ ___
Superior colliculus receives signals from the eye and is important for controlling eye-movements
47
Signals from the retina exit the eye through the ___ ____and then…
- Arrive first at the ____ ____ ____ (___)
- Are then sent along to the primary visual receiving area in the occipital lobe (the ___ ___, beginning with area ___)
- Are then sent through two pathways to the ___ lobe and the ___ lobe (the ___ and ___ streams)
- Finally arrive at the ___ lobe
Signals from the retina exit the eye through the optic nerve and then...
- Arrive first at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
- Are then sent along to the primary visual receiving area in the occipital lobe (the striate cortex, beginning with area V1)
- Are then sent through two pathways to the temporal lobe and the parietal lobe (the dorsal and ventral streams)
- Finally arrive at the frontal lobe
48
Output of centre-surround receptive fields changes depending on area stimulated...
_____ response when only the excitatory area is stimulated, _____ responses when both areas are stimulated (centre-surround antagonism) and _____ response when only the inhibitory area is stimulated
Output of centre-surround receptive fields changes depending on area stimulated...
highest response when only the excitatory area is stimulated, intermediate responses when both areas are stimulated (centre-surround antagonism) and lowest response when only the inhibitory area is stimulated
49
2 basic forms of receptive fields
1) excitatory-centre-inhibitory surround
2) inhibitory-centre-excitatory surround
50
visual receptive fields can be determined by monitoring __ ___ ___
visual receptive fields can be determined by monitoring single cell responses
51
Visual receptive fields
the retinal region over which a given cell in the visual system can be influenced (excited or inhibited) by light
52
Rods have worse acuity because two patterns of stimuli result in the firing of ___ ganglion cells connected to rods, which results in the neural system not being able to distinguish any difference
Rods have worse acuity because two patterns of stimuli result in the firing of one ganglion cells connected to rods, which results in the neural system not being able to distinguish any difference
53
Cones have better acuity because two patterns of stimuli result in the firing of ___ ganglion cells connected to cones, allowing the system to discriminate between the two stimulus examples
Cones have better acuity because two patterns of stimuli result in the firing of different ganglion cells connected to cones, allowing the system to discriminate between the two stimulus examples
54
the trade-off for cones having ___ convergence is that they need ___ light to respond than rods
the trade-off for cones having less convergence is that they need more light to respond than rods
55
Cones have better acuity because they have ___ cones that are connected to any one ganglion cell i.e. have ___ convergence
Cones have better acuity because they have fewer cones that are connected to any one ganglion cell i.e. have less convergence
56
All-___ foveal vision results in ___ visual acuity
All-cone foveal vision results in high visual acuity
57
___ convergence of ___= better acuity
less convergence of cones= better acuity
58
___ convergence of __ = more sensitive
more convergence of rods = more sensitive
59
Because rods have greater convergence than cones, the trade-off is that ___ ___ distinguish ____ as well
Because rods have greater convergence than cones, the trade-off is that rods cannot distinguish detail as well
60
Greater convergence results in ___ of the inputs of many rods into ganglion cells, ____ the likelihood of a response
Greater convergence results in summation of the inputs of many rods into ganglion cells, increasing the likelihood of a response
61
Rods as compared to cones are ___ sensitive to light, take ___ light to respond and have ___ convergence
Rods as compared to cones are more sensitive to light, take less light to respond and have greater convergence
62
Purkinje shift results in ___ 'seeming' ___ to a __-adapted eye, as compared to how it appears to a ___-adapted eye
Purkinje shift results in blue 'seeming' brighter to a dark-adapted eye, as compared to how it appears to a light-adapted eye
63
Purkinje shift
enhanced sensitivity to short wavelengths during dark adaptation when the shift from cone to rod vision occurs
64
Cone pigments absorb best at __ nm, __ nm, and __ nm
Cone pigments absorb best at 419nm, 531nm, and 558nm
65
The difference in spectral sensitivity across rods/cones is due to a difference in their ___ ___ of visual pigments
The difference in spectral sensitivity across rods/cones is due to a difference in their absorption spectra of visual pigments
66
Cones are most sensitive at ___ nm.
Cones are most sensitive at 560 nm.
67
Rods are ____ sensitive to short-wavelength light (most sensitivity at ___ nm) than cones.
Rods are more sensitive to short-wavelength light (most sensitivity at 500 nm) than cones.
68
Rods and cones differ in their ___ ___.
Rods and cones differ in their spectral sensitivity.
69
Humans are most sensitive to the ___ part of the visible spectrum (greenish/yellow light). This corresponds to the part of the spectrum that they have the lowest ___ for.
Humans are most sensitive to the middle part of the visible spectrum (greenish/yellow light). This corresponds to the part of the spectrum that they have the lowest threshold for.
70
Threshold and sensitivity mean something similar but are essentially ____ concepts (1/___ = ___)
Threshold and sensitivity mean something similar but are essentially reciprocal concepts (1/threshold = sensitivity)
71
Spectral sensitivity
refers to the sensitivity of rods and cones to different parts of the visible spectrum
72
Along similar lines (but in the opposite direction), the gradual ____ that we experience as we dark adapt has a lot to do with pigments being ___ at a ___ rate than they’re being used
Along similar lines (but in the opposite direction), the gradual improvement that we experience as we dark adapt has a lot to do with pigments being regenerated at a faster rate than they’re being used
73
Pigment bleaching accounts for being temporarily ‘blinded’ by a bright light (e.g. camera flash) because your ___ ___ of pigments is ___ and must regenerate before ___ can occur again
Pigment bleaching accounts for being temporarily ‘blinded’ by a bright light (e.g. camera flash) because your entire supply of pigments is depleted and must regenerate before transduction can occur again
74
Process needed for transduction:
- Retinal molecule ___ ___
- Opsin molecule ____
- The retina shows visual pigment ____
- Retinal and opsin must then recombine in a process called ____, in order to be capable of responding to light again
Process needed for transduction:
- Retinal molecule changes shape
- Opsin molecule separates
- The retina shows visual pigment bleaching
- Retinal and opsin must then recombine in a process called regeneration, in order to be capable of responding to light again
75
The dark adaptation curve can be determined using the following general approach:
(1) An observer starts in a lit room and becomes ‘___’
(2) The lights are then turned off, at which point the observer adjusts the intensity of a test light until it is just barely visible. This determines_____
(3) As time passes, they continue to readjust the intensity of the test light (again, until it is just barely visible) to plot the ____
The dark adaptation curve can be determined using the following general approach:
(1) An observer starts in a lit room and becomes ‘light adapted’
(2) The lights are then turned off, at which point the observer adjusts the intensity of a test light until it is just barely visible. This determines their sensitivity at the beginning of the dark adaptation curve
(3) As time passes, they continue to readjust the intensity of the test light (again, until it is just barely visible) to plot the change in sensitivity across time
76
Dark adaption refers to the process of ___ visual sensitivity after switching from ___ to __-level lighting conditions
Dark adaption refers to the process of increasing visual sensitivity after switching from high to low-level lighting conditions
77
A chain reaction occurs when a __ __ absorbs a __ ____ __ ___. Each visual pigment molecule activates hundreds more molecules, which each activate ~ 1000 more molecules
A chain reaction occurs when a visual pigment absorbs a single photon of light. Each visual pigment molecule activates hundreds more molecules, which each activate ~ 1000 more molecules
78
Visual transduction occurs when the ___ absorbs one photon, causing it to ___ ___ (a process referred to as isomerization)
Visual transduction occurs when the retinal absorbs one photon, causing it to change shape (a process referred to as isomerization)
79
Opsin
a large protein
80
Retinal
a light sensitive molecule
81
The outer segments of receptors contain visual pigment molecules, which consist of two components, ___ and ____.
The outer segments of receptors contain visual pigment molecules, which consist of two components, retinal and opsin.
82
Presbyopia is caused by the ____ of the lens and ___ of the ciliary muscles
Presbyopia is caused by the hardening of the lens and weakening of the ciliary muscles
83
Presbyopia (AKA ‘old eye’) occurs when ...
the lens can no longer adjust for close objects
84
Hyperopia causes constant ___ for nearby objects that can lead to ___ and ____
Hyperopia causes constant accommodation for nearby objects that can lead to eyestrain and headaches
85
Hyperopia is usually caused by an eyeball that is too ___
Hyperopia is usually caused by an eyeball that is too short
86
Hyperopia occurs when the image gets focused ___ the retina
Hyperopia occurs when the image gets focused behind the retina
87
Hyperopia (AKA ‘farsightedness’)
refers to the inability to see nearby objects clearly
88
Axial myopia
eyeball is too long
89
Refractive myopia
cornea or lens bends too much light
90
Myopia can be caused by ___ and ____
Myopia can be caused by refractive myopia and axial myopia
91
Myopia occurs when the image gets focused ___ the retina
Myopia occurs when the image gets focused in front of the retina
92
Myopia (AKA ‘nearsightedness’) refers to ...
the inability to see distant objects clearly
93
Accommodation causes ____ to ___
Accommodation causes lens to thicken
94
Accommodation occurs when...
ciliary muscles are tightened
95
While that part of the retina contains no receptors, we don’t typically notice it for a few reasons:
- one eye covers the blind spot of the other
- it is located towards the edge of our visual field
- the brain 'fills in' missing information by extrapolating what's around it (via top-down processing)
96
The blind spot
location where the optic nerve exits the eye contains no receptors
97
Retinitis pigments is liked to _____
Retinitis pigments is liked to genetic causes
98
Retinitis pigmentosa
Rods are destroyed first (has particular implications for night vision)
99
Macular degeneration creates a ____ on the retina
Macular degeneration creates a 'dead zone' on the retina
100
Macular degeneration
Fovea and small surrounding area are destroyed (has particular implications for high acuity vision)
101
Peripheral retina is mostly ___ (but also contains some ___)
Peripheral retina is mostly rods (but also contains some cones)
102
Fovea consists solely of ___
Fovea consists solely of cones
103
Cones are ___ and ____
Cones are small and tapered
104
Rods are ___ and ___
Rods are large and cylindrical
105
The visible spectrum for humans ranges from __ to ___ nm, which we perceive as ‘___’
The visible spectrum for humans ranges from 400 to 700 nm, which we perceive as ‘colour’
106
Principle of Transformation
The representations of stimuli in our environment which we construct are transformed, or changed, between the original distal stimulus and the eventual perception they give rise to
107
Principle of Representation
Everything a person perceives is based not on direct contact with stimuli but rather on representations of stimuli that are formed on the receptors and the resulting activity in the person’s nervous system
108
Proximal stimuli
the images formed on the retina
109
Distal stimuli
objects in the environment that are available to an observer
110
Response Expansion
as intensity increases, the perceived magnitude increases more quickly than the actual increase in intensity (e.g. can occur with pain perception)
111
Response Compression
as intensity increases, the perceived magnitude increases more slowly than the actual increase in intensity (e.g. can occur with brightness perception)
112
For horizontal and vertical orientations:
- Identification is better (the ___ effect)
- These stimuli result in ____ neural activation
For horizontal and vertical orientations:
- Identification is better (the oblique effect)
- These stimuli result in greater neural activation
113
Orientation of more ___ spaced lines easier to accurately identify than ___ spaced
Orientation of more widely spaced lines easier to accurately identify than narrowly spaced
114
Neural processing
involves changes that occur as signals are transmitted through the mess of neurons in our brains
115
Transduction
conversion of environmental energy into nerve impulses during receptor processing
116
Sensory receptors
cells specialized to respond to environmental energy
117
Top-down/knowledge-based processing
Processing based on the perceiver’s previous knowledge (i.e. cognitive factors)
118
Bottom-up/ data-based processing
based on incoming stimuli from the environment
119
We seem to process faces ____, which may be different than how we process most other visual-based stimuli
We seem to process faces holistically, which may be different than how we process most other visual-based stimuli
120
modules
dedicated neural mechanisms that are specialized for processing particular kinds of stimuli
121
an example of a module that processes faces is
the FFA
122
We have difficulty detecting ____ in ___ faces
We have difficulty detecting abnormalities in upside down faces
123
prosopagnosia
an inability to perceive faces caused by temporal lobe damage
124
Inversion effects are strong for ___, and are said to occur for stimuli that people have difficulty noticing ___ ___ in when turned upside down
Inversion effects are strong for faces, and are said to occur for stimuli that people have difficulty noticing unusual details in when turned upside down
125
Sensory coding
way perceived objects are represented through neural firing
126
3 theories for how sensory coding of more complex objects is accomplished
1) Specificity coding
2) Population coding
3) Sparse coding
127
Specificity coding
specific (individual) neurons respond to specific stimuli
128
Population coding
pattern of firing across many neurons codes specific objects
129
sparse coding
only a relatively small number of neurons are necessary to code for each concept/identity etc.
130
One fundamental challenge for object/scene perception is that stimulus on the receptors is ___
One fundamental challenge for object/scene perception is that stimulus on the receptors is ambiguous
131
Inverse projection problem
task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina
132
Occlusions
when objects are partially hidden or obscured
133
Viewpoint invariance
allows things to be recognized as equivalent from different perspectives
134
Perceptual organization
process by which elements in our environment get grouped together to create our perception the environment
135
Grouping
'Putting together' objects
136
Segregating
separating objects
137
Structuralism
school of thought that took a reductionist view of psychological processes, it viewed perception as additive combination of various basic sensations
138
Gestalt
school of thought that rejected the structuralist approach, it viewed perception as a product of mind grouping patterns according to laws of perceptual organization
139
phi phenomenon AKA apparent motion
occurs when still images are perceived as being in continuous motion when rapidly alternated across different locations
140
Gestalt psychologists argued " the ___ is more than the ___ of its parts"
Gestalt psychologists argued " the whole is more than the sum of its parts"
141
Illusory contours AKA law of closure
easily recognizable objects tend to be seen as complete, even if parts may be absent (particularly when borders/edges, etc. are 'implied') e.g. packman triangles
142
Principle of Good continuation
lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path possible e.g. cord wires
143
Principle of Pragnanz/ good figure/ simplicity
every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible e.g. Olympic Rings
144
Principle of similarity
similar things tend to be grouped together
145
Principle of Proximity
things that are close together in space tend to be grouped together
146
Law of common fate
objects moving in the same direction tend to be grouped together e.g. birds flying
147
Common region
elements in these are region tend to be grouped together
148
Uniform connectedness
connected region of visual properties are perceived as single unit
149
Figural cues
influence perceptual segregation of figure from ground
150
Areas lower in the field of view are more likely to be perceived as a ___
Areas lower in the field of view are more likely to be perceived as a figure
151
Convex regions e.g. that 'bulge' outward are more likely to be perceived as ___
Convex regions e.g. that 'bulge' outward are more likely to be perceived as figure
152
Figure-ground segregation can be affected by the ____
Figure-ground segregation can be affected by the meaningfulness of a stimulus
153
A scene contains
background elements, objects organized in meaningful ways with each other and the background
154
A scene is acted ___
A scene is acted with
155
An object is acted ___
An object is acted upon
156
People can extract the ___ of a scene when a picture is only presented for 250 ms
People can extract the gist of a scene when a picture is only presented for 250 ms
157
Masking
random pattern that is flashed onscreen immediately after a stimulus presentation, used to prevent persistence of vision that can facilitate further processing after the image has disappeared
158
The ___ is perceived first followed by __
The overall gist is perceived first followed by details
159
Degree of naturalness
textured zones and undulating contours (natural) vs straight lines (urban)
160
Degree of openness
number/density of objects, whether or not the horizon is visible
161
Degree of roughness/ smoothness
number/size/complexity of elements
162
Degree of expansion
convergence of parallel lines
163
5 global image features of scenes that are perceived rapidly and holistically
1) Degree of naturalness
2) Degree of openness
3) Degree of roughness/ smoothness
4) Degree of expansion
5) Colour
164
__ and __ lines are more common in nature than __ lines
horizontal and vertical lines are more common in nature than oblique lines
165
Light-from-above assumption
because light comes from above in the natural (and many unnatural) environments, this leads to particular expectations about what information the location of shadows convey about our physical environment
166
Semantic regularities
characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes
167
Scene schema
knowledge of what a given scene ordinarily contains
168
Helmholtz's Theory of Unconscious Inference
explains some of our perceptions as the result of unconscious assumptions and inferences we make about the environment based on our prior knowledge and personal history of experiences
169
Likelihood principle
we perceive the world in the way that is "most likely" based on our past experiences
170
Thomas Bayes developed Bayesian Inference, in which estimates of the probability of a given outcome are influenced by 2 factors:
1. The ___ ___ (our initial belief about the probability of an outcome)
2. The __ of a given outcome, or the extent to which the available evidence is consistent with the outcome
Thomas Bayes developed Bayesian Inference, in which estimates of the probability of a given outcome are influenced by 2 factors:
1. The prior probability (our initial belief about the probability of an outcome)
2. The likelihood of a given outcome, or the extent to which the available evidence is consistent with the outcome
171
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
responds best to spatial layout
172
Extrastriate body area (EBA)
responds best to pictures of full bodies and body parts
173
Distributed representation
refers to stimuli causing neural activity in a number of different areas of the brain
174
Spatial layout hypothesis
the PPA responds to the surface geometry of the geometric layout of a scene and thus can be activated by any stimuli that produces a sense of 3-D space, not just 'places'
175
PPA gets activated more when imagining space __ objects as compared to space __ objects
PPA gets activated more when imagining space defining objects as compared to space ambiguous objects
176
Space defining objects
evoke a strong sense of surrounding space
177
binocular rivalry occurs when
each eye is presented with a different image
178
Neural mind reading
predicting what a person is perceiving or thinking about based upon their neural activity
179
Structural encoding
based on relationship between voxel activation and structural characteristics of a scene e.g. shapes, lines, textures
180
Semantic encoding
based on the relationship between voxel activation and meaning or category of a scene
181
Attention allows us to prioritize the processing of ___ ___ by filtering out other stimuli to avoid overloading our system
Attention allows us to prioritize the processing of particular stimuli by filtering out other stimuli to avoid overloading our system
182
Visual scanning
visually exploring the environment i.e. looking from place to place
183
Visual scanning involves making many ___, in which we dwell on something to extract information, which are linked by __ ___ ___
Visual scanning involves making many fixations, in which we dwell on something to extract information, which are linked by saccadic eye movements
184
Covert attention
attention that is decoupled from your gaze e.g. watching something 'out of the corner of your eye'
185
Visual salience
areas of stimuli that attract attention due to their physical properties e.g. colour, contrast, orientation, texture etc.
186
Attention capture
particularly salient properties of stimuli result in rapid and involuntary shifts of attention e.g. something that stands out
187
Differences in eye movements related to task instructions/goals demonstrates a ____ role for top-down processing
Differences in eye movements related to task instructions/goals demonstrates a modulatory (adjusting) role for top-down processing
188
Dichotic listening was an early paradigm used to study ____
selective attention
189
Dichotic listening task
one message is presented to the left ear and another message to the right ear and participants are asked to shadow one (say out loud) message while ignoring the other
190
Cocktail party effect
ability to focus on one auditory stimulus while filtering out others
191
Results of dichotic listening task
participants were unable to report the content of the message in the unattended ear, supporting the idea they were largely able to filter out the contents of one message over another (i.e. selectively attend)
192
Binding
process by which features (colour, form, etc.) are combined to create our perception of coherent objects
193
Binding problem
features of objects are processed separately in different areas of the brain, how do they end up getting integrated to form coherent representations which we perceive as singular objects
194
Illusory conjunctions
properties from different objects are bound together and perceived as being contained within the same object
195
FIT (feature integration theory) proposes that binding occurs in 2 distinct stages...
1) Preattentive stage
2) Focused attention stage
196
Preattentive stage
object features are extracted and processed (and proceeds automatically, no effort or attention required)
197
Focused attention stage
extracted features are bound together to form coherent perception (attention plays a key role, and this is the point at which binding errors typically occur)
198
Combinations of colours/shapes that were consistent with 'real-world' knowledge produced __ illusory conjunctions
Combinations of colours/shapes that were consistent with 'real-world' knowledge produced fewer illusory conjunctions
199
Feature search ___ require binding
Feature search does NOT require binding
200
Conjunction search ___ require binding
Conjunction search DOES require binding
201
The speed of feature search is typically ___ sensitive to the number of ___
The speed of feature search is typically NOT sensitive to the number of distractors
202
Because there is no binding in feature search there is a ____ effect, in which the target is almost immediately perceived
Because there is no binding in feature search there is a pop-out effect, in which the target is almost immediately perceived
203
The speed of conjunction search typically ___ affected by the number of distractors
The speed of conjunction search typically IS affected by the number of distractors
204
Distractors affects speed of conjunction search because you need ___ ___ to each item to bind their features when searching for the target
Distractors affects speed of conjunction search because you need focused attention to each item to bind their features when searching for the target
205
When target location is consistent with the cue
valid trial
206
When target location is inconsistent with the cue
invalid trial
207
Spatial attention
attention that has been bound to specific locations
