Post mid-2 Flashcards
(201 cards)
1
Q
The primary function of the chemical senses (taste and smell) is as ___ of the body. They identify things that should be consumed for survival, check if it is safe to breathe/swallow something. They have high ‘___’ rates for receptors (lots of ___), every 5-7 weeks for ___ receptors and 1-2 for ___ receptors
A
The primary function of the chemical senses (taste and smell) is as “gatekeepers” of the body. They identify things that should be consumed for survival, check if it is safe to breathe/swallow something. They have high ‘turnover’ rates for receptors (lots of neurogenesis), every 5-7 weeks for olfactory receptors and 1-2 for taste receptors
2
Q
The 5 basic taste qualities are ..
A
1) Salty
2) Sour
3) Sweet
4) Bitter
5) Umami- described as meaty, brothy or savoury, associated with MSG
3
Q
The taste into 5 basic qualities that can be mixed to create new combinations e.g. sweet and sour chicken is similar to …
A
colours that are broken down into 3 cones but can be mixed to give rise to new colours
4
Q
Sweetness is associated with substances that have ___ ___ ____. Sweet compounds cause an ___ ___ response and also trigger ___ ___ responses that prepare the GI system for processing these substances.
A
Sweetness is associated with substances that have high nutritional value. Sweet compounds cause an automatic acceptance response and also trigger anticipatory metabolic responses that prepare the GI system for processing these substances.
5
Q
Bitterness is associated with substances that are potentially ___ e.g. ___. Bitterness trigger ___ ___ responses to help the organism ___ ___ substances.
A
Bitterness is associated with substances that are potentially harmful e.g. toxins, poisons. Bitterness trigger automatic rejection responses to help the organism avoid harmful substances.
6
Q
Salty taste indicates the presence of ___ (which are bodies need)
A
Salty taste indicates the presence of sodium (which are bodies need)
7
Q
Though there are various examples of links between ___ ___ and a ____ ___ e.g. anticipatory metabolic responses when consuming sweet things, seeking out salty foods after being deprived/depleted, etc.
Some of these can be ___, with no perfect connections between tastes and function of substances
A
Though there are various examples of links between taste quality and a substance’s effect e.g. anticipatory metabolic responses when consuming sweet things, seeking out salty foods after being deprived/depleted, etc.
Some of these can be generalizations, with no perfect connections between tastes and function of substances
8
Q
Our tongue contains ___ different kinds of papillae each of which contain __ __ (approx. 10,000 in total). Each __ __ consists of 50-100 __ __. The tips of these __ __ are where __ occurs (when chemicals contact their receptor sites)
A
Our tongue contains 4 different kinds of papillae each of which contain taste buds (approx. 10,000 in total). Each taste bud consists of 50-100 taste cells. The tips of these taste cells are where transduction occurs (when chemicals contact their receptor sites)
9
Q
Tongue
A
the receptor sheet for taste. Contains papillae, taste buds, taste cells, receptor sites
10
Q
Papillae
A
the structures that give the tongue is rough appearance. There are 4 kinds, each with a different shape
11
Q
Taste buds
A
contained on the papillae, expect for the filiform papillae (Central part of tongue) which contain no taste buds- therefore must stimulate back or perimeter of tongue to result in broad range of taste sensations. There are about 10,000 taste buds.
12
Q
Taste cells
A
cells that make up a taste bud . There are a number of cells for each bud, and the tip of each one sticks out into a taste pore. One or more nerve fibres are associated with each cells
13
Q
Receptor sites
A
sites located on the tips of the taste cells. There are different types of sites for different chemicals. Chemicals contacting the sites cause transduction by affecting ion flow across the membrane of the taste cell
14
Q
Signals from ___ __ travel along 1 of 4 nerves, which synapse with the ___ of the ___ ___ in the brain stem. They then travel to the ___, followed by areas in the __ ___ considered to be the primary receiving area for taste: ___ and ____ ___
A
Signals from taste cells travel along 1 of 4 nerves, which synapse with the nucleus of the solitary tract in the brain stem. They then travel to the thalamus, followed by areas in the frontal lobe considered to be the primary receiving area for taste: insula and frontal operculum
15
Q
What the recordings from the chorda tympani nerve when different taste stimuli were presented to rats showed.. i.e. Erikson’s experiment
A
Across-fibre patterns: where there was relatively similar patterns of activation between NH4Cl and KCl (chemicals that taste similar) but different from NaCl
The results were taken as evidence for population coding. That because population coding was responsible for taste perception, taste aversion learned for KCl should generalize to NH4Cl
16
Q
Evidence for specificity coding in taste
A
Experiment by Mueller et al. where genetic cloning was used to add PTC receptor (human bitter receptor) to see how it affected behavior.
Normal mice do not have the receptor to detect PTC, and do not avoid PTC. The mice bred with a PTC receptor avoided PTC.
Also a similar result when breeding mice that lacked the Cyx receptor (they no longer avoid Cyx, as they otherwise typically would), and no longer produced a response in nerve fibres processing signals from the tongue. Therefore, when the taste receptor for a substance is eliminated, this is reflected in both nerve firing and the animal’s behavior
17
Q
Is the neural code for taste quality population coding, specificity coding or both?
A
Evidence exists for both specificity and population coding in taste but balance is shifting toward specificity
18
Q
There are different responses to phenylthiocarbamide (___) and to 6-n-propylthiouracil (__), about ___ of people can’t perceive the taste of these compounds i.e. missing receptors to detect __/___
A
There are different responses to phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), about 1/3 of people can’t perceive the taste of these compounds i.e. missing receptors to detect PTC/PROP
19
Q
Tasters vs nontasters
A
- tasters have more taste buds than nontasters
- tasters also have specialized receptors for PROP/PTC that nontasters lack
20
Q
Nontasters can be compared to ___ from back in the vision unit
A
dichromat
21
Q
Supertasters
A
picky eaters that are more sensitive/lower threshold to bitter substances than tasters. This may be evolutionary advantageous
22
Q
Many animals are macrosmatic meaning they..
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have a keen sense of smell necessary for survival e.g. dogs
23
Q
Humans are microsmatic meaning …
A
we have a less keen sense of smell that is not crucial to survival
24
Q
Macrosmatic animals communicate through phermones which are …
A
molecules emitted by members of a species that results in a specific reaction in, or communication with, another individual of the same species
25
Anosmia
loss of smell
26
Why is it that rats are 8-50x and dogs are 300-10,000x more sensitive to odours than humans?
Even though the individual receptors of all these animals are equally sensitive the difference lies in the NUMBER of receptors they each have. With humans have 10 million and dogs have 1 billion olfactory receptors
27
Humans can ___ more than 1 trillion different odours (compared to several million colours, half a million tones) but find it difficult to __ odours, only successful about half of the time
Humans can discriminate more than 1 trillion different odours (compared to several million colours, half a million tones) but find it difficult to identify odours, only successful about half of the time
28
Some molecules that have similar structures smell ___, and some that have different structures smell __
Some molecules that have similar structures smell different, and some that have different structures smell the same
29
Olfactory mucosa is located above the __ ___ (below the __ __)
Olfactory mucosa is located above the nasal cavity (below the olfactory bulb)
30
Reasons for why odours are difficult to identify is ..
that there are no big brain regions for smell (and taste) like vision or hearing, this may make identification less accurate as evolutionary we rely more on vision
Maybe because of an inability to retrieve the odours name from our memory
31
Odourants are carried via an airstream entering the nose and come into contact with the ___ ___ ___ (ORN) embedded in this mucosa, which contain ___ ___ sensitive to a narrow range of odourants ('___') e.g. similar to tastebuds
Each ORN consists of ___ type of receptor.
Estimates for humans range from having about ___-___ types of these receptors
Odourants are carried via an airstream entering the nose and come into contact with the olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) embedded in this mucosa, which contain individual receptors sensitive to a narrow range of odourants ('tuned') e.g. similar to tastebuds
Each ORN consists of just one type of receptor.
Estimates for humans range from having about 350-400 types of these receptors
32
Chemical senses involve 3 components
taste, olfaction, flavor (combination of taste and olfaction)
33
Why neurogenesis (renewal of receptors )happens
because the receptors that serve taste and smell are constantly exposed not only to the chemicals they are designed to sense but also to harmful materials such as bacteria and dirt
34
Taste accomplishes its gatekeeper function by the connection between ___ ___ and a ___ ____
Taste accomplishes its gatekeeper function by the connection between taste quality and a substance's effect
35
Population coding vs specificity coding
specificity coding: quality is signalled by the activity in individual neurons that are tuned to respond to specific qualities
population coding: quality is signalled by the pattern of activity distributed across many neurons
36
People who can taste PTC are ___, and those who cannot are called ___
People who can taste PTC are tasters, and those who cannot are called non tasters
37
Detection threshold for odours
lowest concentration at which an odorant can be detected
38
One method for measuring detection threshold is forced-choice method in which participants..
with blocks of two trials - one trial contains a weak odorant and the other, no odorant. The participant's task is to indicate which trial has a stronger smell
39
odor object
source of an odour e.g. coffee, bacon, rose etc.
40
Perceptual organization role in odour
There may be hundreds of molecules from different odour objects e.g. coffee, orange juice, bacon that are mixed in the air but the person just perceives "coffee", "orange juice" and "bacon". Perceiving these few odour objects from hundreds of intermixed molecules
41
How odour objects are perceived
(a) odorant molecules enter the nose
(b) flow over the olfactory mucosa, which contains 350 different types of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs)
(c) stimulation of receptors in the ORNs
(d) activates the ORNs
(e) signals from the ORNs are then sent to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb and then
(f) to higher cortical areas
42
Parallel and difference between visual pigments and olfactory receptors
Parallel:
- both sensitive to a specific range of stimuli- each type of visual pigment is sensitive to band of wavelengths in a particular region of the visible spectrum and each type of olfactory receptor is sensitive to a narrow range of odourants
- just as a particular rod or cone receptor contains only 1 type of visual pigment, a particular olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) contains only 1 type of olfactory receptor
Difference:
- while there are only 4 different types of visual pigments (1 rod pigment and 3 cone pigments), there are about 400 different types of olfactory receptors, each sensitive to a particular group of odourants
43
___ corpuscles (___) are primarily responsible for sensing vibration
Pacinian corpuscles (RA2) are primarily responsible for sensing vibration
44
Corpuscle
(a minute body or cell in an organism) structure surrounding Pacinian receptors is responsible for the selective response to vibration
45
The corpuscle only transmits __ ___ (like vibration) to the actual receptor, not ___ __
The corpuscle only transmits repeated pressure (like vibration) to the actual receptor, not continuous pressure
46
The corpuscle can be likened to an ___ in form, consisting of a series of layers with ___ between each layer
The corpuscle can be likened to an onion in form, consisting of a series of layers with fluid between each layer
47
Surface texture
refers to the physical surface created by peaks and valleys on a given material
48
Visual inspection often leads to inaccurate perception of ___, in part due to variation in what ___ is visible when __ is inconsistent
Visual inspection often leads to inaccurate perception of texture, in part due to variation in what texture is visible when illumination is inconsistent
49
Katz proposed that perception of texture depends on 2 cues which are..
spatial cues, temporal cues (more accurate when using both)
50
Spatial cues are determined by...
the size, shape, and distribution of surface elements
e.g. large bumps or grooves that may be visible, which can be felt simply by pressing one's skin against the material (but can also be felt when moving one's skin across the material- aggregation of all timepoints)
51
Temporal cues are determined by ...
the rate of vibration as skin is moved across finely textured surfaces
e.g. finer textures, like sandpaper, which in fact require movement across the skin (not passive like spatial cues) to be accurately perceived
52
Historically, much of the work directed at understanding perception of texture has focused on ___ cues
Historically, much of the work directed at understanding perception of texture has focused on spatial cues
53
Hollins and Reisner: two different fine textures were perceived as identical when _____, yet could be distinguished when participants ____
Hollins and Reisner: two different fine textures were perceived as identical when passively touched, yet could be distinguished when participants moved their hand across them
54
There is higher degree of accuracy and specificity when you use spatial/temporal cues
temporal
55
Hollins et al. adapted participants' skin in 1 of 2 conditions:
1. 10-Hz (10 vibrations/second) stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt to the ___ corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to low frequencies)
2. 250-Hz stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt the ___ corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to high frequencies)
Participants asked to repeatedly discriminate amongst 2 fine surface textures - e.g. one fine vs one very fine (therefore chance performance =50%)
Adaptation to the ___-Hz stimulus (only) affected the perception of fine textures
Implicates the role of ___ cues, mediated by the ___ corpuscle receptor, in sensing fine texture
Hollins et al. adapted participants' skin in 1 of 2 conditions:
1. 10-Hz (10 vibrations/second) stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt to the meissner corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to low frequencies)- Meissner corpuscle disabled
2. 250-Hz stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt the Pacinian corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to high frequencies)- Pacinian corpuscle disabled
Participants asked to repeatedly discriminate amongst 2 fine surface textures - e.g. one fine vs one very fine (therefore chance performance =50%)
Adaptation to the 250-Hz stimulus (only) affected the perception of fine textures
Implicates the role of temporal cues, mediated by the Pacinian corpuscle receptor, in sensing fine texture
56
Active touch refers to
tactical perception that involves controlled movement, usually with hands and fingers - temporal cues
57
Passive touch refers to
directly applying something to the skin, without any movement e.g. as when testing two-point thresholds)- spatial cues
58
___ perception relies on active touch to explore 3-D objects and can be thought of as engaging (at least) 3 distinct systems, which entails a great deal of complex coordination for the perceptual system:
1) ___ system
2) ___ system
3) ___ system
Haptic perception relies on active touch to explore 3-D objects and can be thought of as engaging (at least) 3 distinct systems, which entails a great deal of complex coordination for the perceptual system:
1) Sensory system
2) Motor system
3) Cognitive system- memory, schemas, previous experiences
59
Psychophysical research shows that people can identify many objects using ___ perception in 1-2 seconds
Psychophysical research shows that people can identify many objects using haptic perception in 1-2 seconds
60
Lederman and Klatzky have shown people use 4 primary exploratory procedures to identify objects: __ __, ___ __, __, __ . They typically rely on 1 or 2 of these to make judgements about a particular property e.g. to judge texture vs to judge exact shape
Lederman and Klatzky have shown people use 4 primary exploratory procedures to identify objects: lateral motion, contour following, pressure, enclosure . They typically rely on 1 or 2 of these to make judgements about a particular property e.g. to judge texture vs to judge exact shape
61
Neurons in the ventral posterior nucleus (functions in touch) have ___-___ ___ __ (like in the LGN)
Neurons in the ventral posterior nucleus have centre-surround receptive fields (like in the LGN)
62
Some somatosensory neurons respond maximally (are 'tuned') to particular ___ and/or __ of ___
Some somatosensory neurons respond maximally (are 'tuned') to particular orientations and/or direction of movement
63
Some neurons in the monkey somatosensory cortex also respond best to particular kinds of ___ __
Some neurons in the monkey somatosensory cortex also respond best to particular kinds of hand grips
64
___ can also modulate the response of neurons in S1 and S2 (neurons in the somatosensory that are sensitive to touch)
Attention can also modulate the response of neurons in S1 and S2 (neurons in the somatosensory that are sensitive to touch)
65
Hsiao, O'Shaughnessy & Johnson: Raised letters e.g. Braille run across monkey hands in 1 of 2 conditions, either requiring attention on the tactic sensation or some other unrelated visual stimuli
Much more robust firing of neurons in S1 and S2 in the ____ condition
Hsiao, O'Shaughnessy & Johnson: Raised letters e.g. Braille run across monkey hands in 1 of 2 conditions, either requiring attention on the tactic sensation or some other unrelated visual stimuli
Much more robust firing of neurons in S1 and S2 in the tactile-attention condition- because distracted from tactile sensation by the visual stimuli so neurons did not fire as strongly
66
Keysers et al. showed that S2 neurons respond to ____, but not ____
Similar results when watching someone else use ___ touch to explore objects
Keysers et al. showed that S2 neurons respond to seeing someone else be touched, or seeing an object being touched, but not a control film with similar visual properties --> mirror neurons
Similar results when watching someone else use active touch to explore objects
67
Pain
a multimodal phenomenon (e.g. visual information like a scary needle or auditory like a loud sound) containing a sensory component and an affective or emotional component e.g. stressed before going to dentist can make pain feel worse
68
Inflammatory pain
caused by damage to tissues and joints or by tumour cells
69
Neuropathic pain
caused by damage to the CNS
70
Nociceptive pain
caused by activation of nociceptors in the skin, which signal impending damage. Respond to heat, chemicals, severe pressure and cold
71
Threshold of eliciting nociceptor response requires ___: need to warn the system of damage without being oversensitive i.e. not be triggered by 'normal' everyday activities
Threshold of eliciting nociceptor response requires balance: need to warn the system of damage without being oversensitive i.e. not be triggered by 'normal' everyday activities
72
The direct pathway model of pain ...
was an early theory that assumed pain is simply the result of nociceptors being stimulated and sending signals to the brain
73
A problem with the direct pathway model of pain was that there was a lot of evidence for many kinds of exceptions like...
- pain can be affected by a person's mental state
- pain can occur when there is no stimulation of the skin i.e. placebo
- pain can be affected by a person's attention
- phantom limbs- limbs hurt where there is none
74
Like the direct pathway model, ___ ___ model still assumes that pain signals enter the spinal cord from the body and are transmitted to brain
However, in addition...
Like the direct pathway model, gate control model still assumes that pain signals enter the spinal cord from the body and are transmitted to brain
However, in addition...
It says that various kinds of additional pathways exist that influence the transmission of these signals to the brain, effectively opening or closing a 'gate' that these signals flow through
75
The various kinds of additional pathways that the gate control model mentions, involves __ types of signals processed in the __ __ of the spinal cord, whose integrated output is sent to what are referred to as ___ __ (whose activity is directly related to our perception of pain)
The various kinds of additional pathways that the gate control model mentions, includes involves 3 types of signals processed in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, whose integrated output is sent to what are referred to as transmission cells (whose activity is directly related to our perception of pain)
76
The 3 different signals in the gate control model of pain
signals from mechanoreceptors (not considered painful stimuli), signals from nociceptors (painful stimuli), signals from the central control (top-down mediating effects e.g. distraction)
77
Mechanoreceptors
receptors carrying information about non-painful tactile-based stimuli
They send inhibitory signals (-) to transmission cells, closing the gate
78
Nociceptors
receptors carrying information about painful tactile-based stimuli
They send excitatory signals (+) to transmission cells, opening the gate
79
Central control
receive signals related to cognitive function e.g. attention, expectations, distractions etc.
They also send inhibitory signals (-) to transmission cells, closing the gate
80
__ __ __ has been used to keep patients' attention on other stimuli than the pain-inducing stimulation
Virtual reality technology has been used to keep patients' attention on other stimuli than the pain-inducing stimulation
81
When surgical patients are told what to __, they request less pain medication and leave hospital earlier
When surgical patients are told what to expect, they request less pain medication and leave hospital earlier
- scariest thing is the unknown
- if do not know what to expect it can ramp up negative responses and increase pain responses
82
Another example of expectations mediating pain can be seen with __, which can be very effective at reducing pain
Another example of expectations mediating pain can be seen with placebos, which can be very effective at reducing pain
83
Bingel et al. systematically varied expectations for pain by ...
They first calibrated the intensity of the painful stimuli by varying a moderately painful stimuli until participants provided a subjective rating of 70 (on a scale of 0-100).
Then reapplied the same stimuli and asked them to again rate how painful they found it to be under 1 of 4 conditions, which all began with attaching an IV line containing saline solution:
1) Baseline: not given a painkiller, just saline solution
2) No expectation: given saline solution, which was switched for a painkiller partway through the experiment (without being told about the switch)
3) positive expectation: saline solution switched to a painkiller, which participants were told about
4) negative expectation: saline solution switched to a painkiller, which participants were not told about (and were in fact specifically told the salience solution would be all they recieve- telling them it would only feel worse from there)
84
What did Bingel et al. find ...
robust effects of expectations, independent of the presence of a painkiller in the transfusion line.
Increase in pain rating in negative expectation condition, 9 points increase (64) compared to no expectation (55)
Positive expectation dropped pain rating to 39 from a 70
85
Nocebo effect/ negative placebo effect
increase in pain accompanying a negative expectation i.e. expecting pain to get worse (bc told it would) even when given pain killers
86
Another kind of top-down effect on pain perception relates to ___
emotions
87
deWied and Verbaten: Participants kept their hands in cold water (~20C) for ___ when they were shown positive pictures
deWied and Verbaten: Participants kept their hands in cold water (~20C) for longer when they were shown positive pictures --> happy emotion
88
Roy et al. : Participants rated cold water as __ intense and __ unpleasant while listening to pleasant music
Roy et al. : Participants rated cold water as less intense and less unpleasant while listening to pleasant music --> emotion
89
Brain regions involved in pain...
subcortical areas: hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus
Cortical areas: S1, insula, anterior cingulate (ACC), prefrontal cortices (PFC)
90
The areas of the brain that are involved in pain taken together are called the ...
pain matrix
91
Hofbauer et al. asked participants to put their hands in cold water and rate both the subjective pain intensity, as well as the unpleasantness of the pain
__ was used to try to increase or decrease either the ___ (intensity) or __/emotional (unpleasantness) components of pain
Suggestions to change the intensity were associated with changes in __
Suggestions to change the unpleasantness were associated with changes in __
Hofbauer et al. asked participants to put their hands in cold water and rate both the subjective pain intensity, as well as the unpleasantness of the pain
Hypnosis was used to try to increase or decrease either the sensory (intensity) or affective/emotional (unpleasantness) components of pain
Suggestions to change the intensity were associated with changes in S1
Suggestions to change the unpleasantness were associated with changes in ACC
92
Brain tissues releases neurotransmitters called __, which bind to same receptors as opiates
Brain tissues releases neurotransmitters called endorphins, which bind to same receptors as opiates
93
Endorphins ___ pain
reduce
94
Injecting naloxone blocks the receptor sites, that endorphins bind to, therefore causing __ pain.
Naloxone also ___ the effectiveness of placebos (implicating endorphins in __-__ ___- expecting pain killers triggers release of endorphins)
People whose brains release more ___ can withstand higher pain levels
Injecting naloxone blocks the receptor sites, that endorphins bind to, therefore causing more pain.
Naloxone also decreases the effectiveness of placebos (implicating endorphins in top-down effects- expecting pain killers triggers release of endorphins)
People whose brains release more endorphins can withstand higher pain levels
95
Benedetti injected __ (active component of chilli peppers that causes a burning sensation) just under the skin in 4 places: left/right hand, left/right foot.
Also applied a placebo cream (which participants were told had analgesic properties) on one or two of these locations, then took subjective ratings of pain
Results suggest effects of placebos are __ e.g. if you expect just your hand to feel less pain, that will be what you perceive and your feet will not 'benefit' from the placebo- somatosensory cortex activation of hand cause endorphin release
Benedetti injected capsaicin (active component of chilli peppers that causes a burning sensation) just under the skin in 4 places: left/right hand, left/right foot.
Also applied a placebo cream (which participants were told had analgesic properties) on one or two of these locations, then took subjective ratings of pain
Results suggest effects of placebos are localized e.g. if you expect just your hand to feel less pain, that will be what you perceive and your feet will not 'benefit' from the placebo- somatosensory cortex activation of hand cause endorphin release
96
Singer et al. demonstrated overlap between parts of the brain involved with both directly experiencing, and ____
Singer et al. demonstrated overlap between parts of the brain involved with both directly experiencing, and watching someone else, receive painful simulation
97
Klimecki et al. showed that participants assigned to an empathy training condition had greater ___ activation in response to seeing videos of other people getting hurt
Klimecki et al. showed that participants assigned to an empathy training condition had greater ACC activation in response to seeing videos of other people getting hurt
98
Eisenberger et al. asked whether rejection actually 'hurts' using an experiment involving a video game that essentially consisted of a virtual game of keep away
A ball was passed around between 2 players but the third (who was always the experimental participant) was never passed to
RESULTS??
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) was found to be activated, in step with degree of subjective feelings of reported social distress i.e. how badly they felt on account of feeling left out
99
Physical-social pain overlap hypothesis
suggests that overlapping regions of the brain are associated with both physical and socially-based pain
100
Somatosensory system consists of 3 parts...
1) cutaneous senses
2) proprioception
3) kinesthesis
101
Cutaneous senses
perception of touch and pain from stimulation of the skin
102
Proprioception
ability to sense position of the body and limbs
103
Kinesthesis
ability to sense movement of body and limbs
104
Stimulation of the skin allows us to perceive a range of sensations, including __, __, __ and __
Stimulation of the skin allows us to perceive a range of sensations, including details, vibrations, texture and shape
105
Some of the key adaptive advantages offered by the cutaneous senses include...
- monitoring damage to our body via pain
- helping us coordinate movements/actions
- protection (keeping organs safe inside, foreign debris/toxins/pathogens etc. outside)
106
Skin
heaviest organ and protects us by keeping damaging agents from penetrating our body
107
Epidermis
outer layer of the skin, which is made up of dead skin cells
108
Dermis
below the epidermis and contains mechanoreceptors that respond to stimuli such as pressure, stretching and vibration
109
Merkel receptor
- one of the 2 types of mechanoreceptors located close to surface of the skin
- they have relatively small cutaneous receptive fields (when stimulated mechanoreceptor will fire)
- they fire continuously while stimulus is present (slowly adapting or SA1)
- responsible for sensing fine details and texture
110
Meissner corpuscle
- other kind of mechanoreceptor
- located close to the skin's surface (also have relatively small cutaneous receptive fields)
- fire only when a stimulus is first applied and when it is removed (rapidly adapting or RA1- quick burst of activity that quickly tapers off)
- responsible for controlling hand-grip
111
Ruffini cylinder
- one of 2 types of mechanoreceptors located DEEPER in the skin
- fire continuously to stimulation (SA2)
- associated with perceiving stretching of the skin
112
One major challenge for the cutaneous senses is ____ as compared to other senses with more 'localized' receptors e.g. the eye, the ear etc.
One major challenge for the cutaneous senses is the distance the signals from these receptors must travel (to the brain) as compared to other senses with more 'localized' receptors e.g. the eye, the ear etc.
113
2 major pathways for signals from skin to cortex exist in the __ __ (with signals entering via the __ __)
These crossover to the opposite side of the body and synapse in the thalamus (in the ___ ___ ) i.e. contralateral wiring
2 major pathways for signals from skin to cortex exist in the spinal cord (with signals entering via the dorsal root)
These crossover to the opposite side of the body and synapse in the thalamus (in the ventrolateral nucleus) i.e. contralateral wiring
114
Medial lemniscal pathway
consists of large fibres that carry proprioceptive and touch information, and send high-speed signals
115
Spinothalamic pathways
consists of smaller fibres that carry temperature and pain information
116
Somatosensory signals travel ...
1) From the thalamus to parietal lobe, specifically the somatosensory receiving area (S1) (and possibly directly to the secondary receiving area, S2)
2) Between S1 and S2
3) From S1/S2 to additional areas relevant for somatosensory perception
117
Homonculus
body map, in S1 and S2 shows more cortical space allocated to parts of the body that are responsible for detail
118
Plasticity in neural functioning leads to multiple ___ and changes in how __ __ are allocated to body parts
Plasticity in neural functioning leads to multiple homunculi and changes in how cortical cells are allocated to body parts
119
How is tactile acuity typically measured?
two-point threshold and grating acuity
120
Two-point threshold
minimum separation needed between 2 points to perceive them as being separate/distinct
121
Grating acuity
placing a grooved stimulus on the skin and asking the participant to indicate the orientation of the grating
122
Raised pattern identification
can also use various raised patterns (like Braille) to determine the smallest size that can be identified
123
Body areas with high acuity have ___ areas of cortical tissue devoted to them
Body areas with high acuity have larger areas of cortical tissue devoted to them
124
Areas with higher acuity tend to have __ receptive fields on the skin, as well as a ___ representation in S1
Areas with higher acuity tend to have smaller receptive fields on the skin, as well as a larger representation in S1
125
Segmentation problem
refers to the fact that, because there are no physical breaks in the continuous acoustic signal, speech segmentation (perceiving individual words) can be a challenge
126
As we learn a language, we implicitly begin to acquire expectations for how _____, based on how frequently we hear ____
As we learn a language, we implicitly begin to acquire expectations for how sounds/words are likely (or unlikely) to be put together in particular combinations, based on how frequently we hear those particular combinations
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transitional probability
the chance that one sound will follow another in a language
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An example of transitional probability for English Speakers
how we expect at least one vowel (open air flow) to occur after every few consonants or so (constricted air flow)
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Knowing that certain phonemes are more likely to be paired together because of previous experience e.g. like music getting used to chords/tones going together is called....
statistical learning
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Saffran et al. used a head-turning procedure to test whether 8 month-old infants show evidence for ___ ___
In this experiment he...
He created the study so that transitional probability of 2 syllables WITHIN words occur ___ % of the time, e.g. __% of the time the infants heard 'bi', it was followed by 'da' (from bidaku), and transitional probability BETWEEN words to occur ___% of the time, e.g. ___% of the time the syllable 'ku' (from bidaku) was presented, it was followed by 'go' (from golabu) because golabu followed bidaku on ___ of the trials
Saffran et al. used a head-turning procedure to test whether 8 month-old infants show evidence for statistical learning
In this experiment he combined 4 nonsense words e.g. bidaku, golabu, padoti and turpiro in random orders to create 2 minute-long strings of sounds e.g. bidakugolabupadotiturpiro <-- learning phase
He created the study so that transitional probability of 2 syllables WITHIN words occur 100 % of the time, e.g. 100% of the time the infants heard 'bi', it was followed by 'da' (from bidaku), and transitional probability BETWEEN words to occur 33% of the time, e.g. 33% of the time the syllable 'ku' (from bidaku) was presented, it was followed by 'go' (from golabu) because golabu followed bidaku on 1/3 of the trials
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After the learning phase of Saffran et al. study where the infants listened to a string of "words" for 2-minutes, they completed a testing phase. During this phase each stimulus was preceded by a flashing light near the speaker that would present the sound. Once the infants looked at the light, the sound would play until they looked away (a standard ___ ___ __) . It would either be a pair of __- words or __-words.
__- words: stimuli created from the previously heard nonsense words e.g. bidaku that had transitional probabilites of 1.0 between the syllables i.e. were entirely predictable, were not 'novel'
__- words: stimuli created from the beginning and end of two of the previously heard nonsense words (were not predictable, were 'novel')
The results were that the ___-words resulted in longer listening times as they were novel and therefore more ___ to the infant than the ___-words that they recognized. This suggested that infants were already using ___ ___ by that age
After the learning phase of Saffran et al. study where the infants listened to a string of "words" for 2-minutes, they completed a testing phase. During this phase each stimulus was preceded by a flashing light near the speaker that would present the sound. Once the infants looked at the light, the sound would play until they looked away (a standard looking time procedure) . It would either be a pair of part- words or whole-words.
Whole- words: stimuli created from the previously heard nonsense words e.g. bidaku that had transitional probabilites of 1.0 between the syllables i.e. were entirely predictable, were not 'novel'
Part- words: stimuli created from the beginning and end of two of the previously heard nonsense words (were not predictable, were 'novel')
The results were that the part-words resulted in longer listening times as they were novel and therefore more interesting to the infant than the whole-words that they recognized. This suggested that infants were already using statistical learning by that age
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Davis et al. used __-__ ___ (a method to add noise to an acoustic signal, keeping physical components constant) and asked participants to identify the words they were perceiving in each sentence.
Accuracy was close to __% for the first sentence and gradually increases across sentence number
Additional information provided by the preceding sentences provides some context and can lead to __-__ effects, in which related words in later sentences are easier to identify = __-___ effects
Davis et al. used noice-vocoded speech (a method to add noise to an acoustic signal, keeping physical components constant) and asked participants to identify the words they were perceiving in each sentence.
Accuracy was close to 0% for the first sentence and gradually increases across sentence number
Additional information provided by the preceding sentences provides some context and can lead to pop-out effects, in which related words in later sentences are easier to identify = top-down effects
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Why was the now not super accurate motor theory of speech perception developed ?
as a response to the lack of invariance (presence of variability) associated with phonemes contained with the acoustic signal
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The thinking behind the motor theory of speech perception
the thinking was, even if the physical properties of the acoustic signal changes as a function of things like the speaker e.g. accents, coarticulation etc. if everyone produces phonemes using the same mouth movements, maybe our perceptual system can use motor representations as a 'stable' form of phoneme representation
i.e. it proposed that speech recognition is fundamentally a process of recognizing or matching the motor programs that the speaker used to generate the speech sounds
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D'Ausilio et al. used TMS to test the hypothesis that enhancing activity in ___ ___ may assist with the ability to recognize various sound of speech
He found that stimulation in areas associated with __ __ sped up responses to sounds of speech involving the same movements (with a similar result for areas/stimuli related to __ ___)
D'Ausilio et al. used TMS to test the hypothesis that enhancing activity in motor regions may assist with the ability to recognize various sound of speech
He found that stimulation in areas associated with lip movements sped up responses to sounds of speech involving the same movements (with a similar result for areas/stimuli related to tongue movements)
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Silbert et al. used fMRI to check neural activity across 2 conditions:
1)
2)
He found both ___ and __ across areas of activation
Sibert et al. used fMRI to check neural activity across 2 conditions:
1) telling a story (production)- broca's area
2) listening to a story (comprehension)- wernicke's
He found both differences and overlap across areas of activation- Broca area corresponding with articulators
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What Silbert et al. results suggest...
that since the processes related to production and comprehension were similar ('coupled') and there was regions that overlapped when activated, it is possible that there is some shared mechanisms
e.g. maybe neurons involved with moving your mouth to produce certain sounds are also involved in recognizing when other do the same?
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Some models consider networks supporting ___ and __ as separate and others as a ___ network
Some models consider networks supporting production and comprehension as separate and others as a unified network
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Broca's aphasia results from damage to broca's area (in the ___ lobe - planning, following rules).
These patients have speech that is __, __, and often involves __ sentences, which all seem to related to all general deficit in processing ___ __ (grammar, syntax, etc.)
This general deficit may most obviously affect ___, though it can also cause problems with ___
Broca's aphasia results from damage to broca's area (in the frontal lobe - planning, following rules).
These patients have speech that is slow, laboured, and often involves jumbled sentences, which all seem to related to all general deficit in processing sentence structure (grammar, syntax, etc.)
This general deficit may most obviously affect production, though it can also cause problems with comprehension
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Which of these sentences would create problems in someone with broca's aphasia:
1. The apple was eaten by the girl
2. The boy was pushed by the girl
And why..?
Sentence 2.
Because there is arguably only 1 logical interpretation of what the nouns/verbs in the first sentence (apple, eaten, girl) are describing. Vs in there are at least 2 possibilities with the second sentence e.g. boy pushed girl, girl pushed boy, so you would need to rely on more than just key words to interpret it e.g. grammar and syntax <-- which people with Broca's aphasia have difficulty with
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Wernicke's aphasia results from damage to Wernicke's area (in the ___ lobe).
Patients can ___ __ and form ___ ___ ___, though the content is ___ and not ___
These patients have even more difficulty with ___ (as compared to those with Broca's aphasia)
May be associated with ___ __ in extreme cases (inability to recognize words)
Wernicke's aphasia results from damage to Wernicke's area (in the temporal lobe).
Patients can speak fluently and form grammatically correct sentences, though the content is disorganized and not meaningful
These patients have even more difficulty with comprehension (as compared to those with Broca's aphasia)
May be associated with word deafness in extreme cases (inability to recognize words)
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A '__ __' in the superior temporal sulcus (STS) has been identified that is activated more strongly by voices than other sounds
A 'voice area' in the superior temporal sulcus (STS) has been identified that is activated more strongly by voices than other sounds
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'__ __' in the temporal lobe of monkeys have also been found which respond more strongly to recordings of monkey called than to calls of other animals
'Voice cells' in the temporal lobe of monkeys have also been found which respond more strongly to recordings of monkey called than to calls of other animals
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In the temporal lobe, single-cell recordings have located neurons in humans the respond more strongly to ___
In the temporal lobe, single-cell recordings have located neurons in humans the respond more strongly to phonemes
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Some of the neurons identified in Mesgarani et al. also seem tuned to selectively respond to more general ___ ___, such as:
- ___ of articulation: what you actually do with your articulators (how you move your tongue, lips etc. when pronouncing certain phonemes)
- ____ of articulation: where in your mouth the articulators are manipulated (back of the throat, front of mouth close to teeth, etc.)
Some of the neurons identified in Mesgarani et al. also seem tuned to selectively respond to more general phonetic features, such as:
- manner of articulation: what you actually do with your articulators (how you move your tongue, lips etc. when pronouncing certain phonemes)
- place of articulation: where in your mouth the articulators are manipulated (back of the throat, front of mouth close to teeth, etc.)
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While infants' ability to perceive ___ improves with time/experience, their ability to discern ___ not commonly used in their ___ ___ diminishes
Kuhl et al. study:
- At 6 months of age, American and Japanese infants are equally good at discriminating phonemes /ra/ and /la/ (both /ra/ and /la/ are not represented in Japanese speech)
- By about 12 months, the American infants have gotten ___, while the Japanese infants have gotten ___ (at discriminating those 2 particular phonemes)
The results of Kuhl demonstrate a typical trade-off related to ___-___ ___: we get better at what we practice and become worst at what we don't
While infants' ability to perceive phonemes improves with time/experience, their ability to discern sounds not commonly used in their native language diminishes
Kuhl et al. study:
- At 6 months of age, American and Japanese infants are equally good at discriminating phonemes /ra/ and /la/ (both /ra/ and /la/ are not represented in Japanese speech)
- By about 12 months, the American infants have gotten better, while the Japanese infants have gotten worse (at discriminating those 2 particular phonemes)
The results of Kuhl demonstrate a typical trade-off related to experience-dependent plasticity: we get better at what we practice and become worst at what we don't
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Social gating hypothesis
proposes that our brain 'gates' specific mechanisms that are important/required for speaking particular languages
Developing expertise for sounds of speech of your language but are less flexible to sounds of non-native languages
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Common challenge faced in visual perception and by perceptual system when interpreting speech
trying to reduce ambiguity to derive the most likely meaning
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Acoustic signal (acoustic stimulus)
stimulus for speech
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How acoustic signal is produced
by air that is pushed up from the lungs through the vocal cords and then into the vocal tract
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Vowels are produced by __ of the __ __ that accompany changes in the shape of the vocal tract
These changes are caused by moving ___ (structures like the tongue, lips, teeth, jaw and soft palate), which change the resonant frequency of the vocal system
This change in resonance produces peaks in pressure at a number of frequencies (referred to as ___)
Each vowel is associated with a characteristic series of ___
Vowels are produced by vibration of the vocal chords that accompany changes in the shape of the vocal tract
These changes are caused by moving articulators (structures like the tongue, lips, teeth, jaw and soft palate), which change the resonant frequency of the vocal system
This change in resonance produces peaks in pressure at a number of frequencies (referred to as formants)
Each vowel is associated with a characteristic series of formants
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The formant with the lowest frequency is called the __ __ (F1), the __ ___ (F2) is the next highest, etc.
These can be visualized using __ ___
The formant with the lowest frequency is called the first formant (F1), the second formant (F2) is the next highest, etc.
These can be visualized using sound spectrograms
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Consonants are produced by __ of the vocal tract, dampening vibrations
Consonants are produced by constrictions of the vocal tract, dampening vibrations
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Formant transitions
rapid changes in frequency preceding or following consonants, changing articulators
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Although vowels and consonants are fundamental units of speech, these are not the smallest 'building blocks' of speech .. the smallest unit of speech capable of changing the meaning of a word =
Although vowels and consonants are fundamental units of speech, these are not the smallest 'building blocks' of speech .. the smallest unit of speech capable of changing the meaning of a word = phoneme
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Lack of invariance/have variance/ variability in how people pronounce things
While words are 'built' by putting together phonemes in different combinations, the acoustic signal produced for any given phoneme is variable
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Nevertheless, providing yet another example of __ __ e.g. colour constancy, size constancy, etc. our perceptual systems can still recognize differing acoustic signals as representing the same phoneme
Nevertheless, providing yet another example of perceptual constancies e.g. colour constancy, size constancy, etc. our perceptual systems can still recognize differing acoustic signals as representing the same phoneme
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coarticulation
sounds produced by a single phoneme can be different depending on what phoneme comes before and after it e.g. we perceive 'b' sounds 'bat' and 'boot' as essentially being the same 'b' sound, although our mouth shape changes (which affects the acoustic signal)
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In addition to the variability that can happen when the same person produces the same phonemes in different contexts, additional sources of variability come from ___ ___ ___ e.g. accent, speed in speaking or __ ___ e.g. the 't' in best buy might not always be pronounced ('bes buy')
In addition to the variability that can happen when the same person produces the same phonemes in different contexts, additional sources of variability come from differences across speakers e.g. accent, speed in speaking or 'sloppy' pronunciation e.g. the 't' in best buy might not always be pronounced ('bes buy')
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Categorical perception
occurs with speech, given that a wide range of acoustic cues results in the perception of a limited number of sound categories
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In speech perception, one continuous property that seems to be related to categorical perception is __ ___ __ (VOT)
In speech perception, one continuous property that seems to be related to categorical perception is voice onset time (VOT)
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Voice onset time (VOT)
the delay between when a speech sound begins and when the vocal cords start vibrating
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Same acoustic signal can be perceived differently by varying the...
VOT (voice onset time)
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Like many things we perceive, speech perception can be influenced by __ ___
multimodal integration
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Audiovisual speech perception
A perception of speech that is affected by both auditory and visual stimulation, as when a person sees a video of someone making the lip movements for /fa/ while hearing the sound /ba/ and perceives /fa/. Also called the McGurk effect
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Kriegstein presented participants with stimuli using both familiar and unfamiliar voices, while using fMRI
The __ ___ __ (___ ) was found to be activated for all speech stimuli (consistent with prior work associating it with speech perception), though familiar (but not unfamiliar) voices also activated the ___ ___ __ (__). This provides a physiological basis for a link between ___ ___ and __ ___
Kriegstein presented participants with stimuli using both familiar and unfamiliar voices, while using fMRI
The superior temporal sulcus (STS ) was found to be activated for all speech stimuli (consistent with prior work associating it with speech perception), though familiar (but not unfamiliar) voices also activated the fusiform face area (FFA). This provides a physiological basis for a link between speech perception and facial processing
e.g. know popular actors voice and watching animation with voice you will then start picturing the actor's face
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Phonemes are more easily perceived when they appear in a meaningful context, this represents an influence of ___-___ ___
Phonemes are more easily perceived when they appear in a meaningful context, this represents an influence of top-down perception
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Participants recognized phonemes more quickly when presented as ___ ___ ___ ___, as compared to '___' words e.g. bat vs baf
Participants recognized phonemes more quickly when presented as part of real words, as compared to 'nonsense' words e.g. bat vs baf
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Phonemic restoration effect
missing phonemes can also be 'filled in' based on expectations
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Miller and Isard asked participants to '___' (listen with headphones and repeat aloud what is heard) 3 kinds of sentences:
1) ___ __ sentences (easiest to understand even under conditions with hightened uncertainty) e.g. gadgets simplify work around the house
2) ___ sentences that correctly follow grammatical rules but do not make sense (not meaningful, harder to understand because of lack of context) e.g. gadgets kill passengers from the eyes
3) ___ ___ of ___ (can't rely on previous experience) e.g. between gadgets highways passengers the steal
Miller and Isard asked participants to 'shadow' (listen with headphones and repeat aloud what is heard) 3 kinds of sentences:
1) Grammatically correct sentences (easiest to understand even under conditions with hightened uncertainty) e.g. gadgets simplify work around the house
2) Anomalous sentences that correctly follow grammatical rules but do not make sense (not meaningful, harder to understand because of lack of context) e.g. gadgets kill passengers from the eyes
3) Ungrammatical strings of words (can't rely on previous experience) e.g. between gadgets highways passengers the steal
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Results of Miller and Isard study and what they showed
- Accuracy decreased across sentence type (89% for grammatically correct, 79% for anomalous, 56% for ungrammatical)
- Adding background noise produced a similar, but more extreme, pattern (63% for grammatically correct, 22% for anomalous, 3% for ungrammatical)
- It showed that arranging words in a meaningful pattern enhances our ability to recognize them, which can demonstrate an effect of prior knowledge on the perception of linguistic representations
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Meter
the organization of beats into bars or measures (often accenting the first beat in each bar), breaking up complex parts of music to repetitions
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Metrical structure
can be created by accentuating in various ways (playing that note louder, with a stronger attack, etc.)
174
Rhythm
temporal structure created by the inter-onset interval of notes (the time between the onset of notes, not the duration of those notes), time between starting one note and then another
175
Beat
pulse of music, creating a regular framework that the melody fits into to create a rhythmic pattern
176
Music as movement through time, propelled by __ that are organized by __, which forms a framework for ___ patterns created by notes
Music as movement through time, propelled by beat that are organized by meter, which forms a framework for rhythmic patterns created by notes
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Syncopation
occurs when notes are played 'off the beat' creating what can be described as a 'jumpiness' (stands out/salient/pop out effect). It produces a violation of expectations of sorts, and can lead to increased neural activation
178
Iverson et al. recorded MEG activity when presenting the same stimuli but with instructions to either imagine accents on the first or second note
Our ability to change ___ with our mind is reflected directly by activity in the brain
Iverson et al. recorded MEG activity when presenting the same stimuli but with instructions to either imagine accents on the first or second note
Our ability to change meter with our mind is reflected directly by activity in the brain
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In English, content words (key words) typically come ___ function words (support main key words), so the dominant stress pattern is ___-___
e.g. the book
In Japanese, content words typically come ___ function words, so the dominant stress pattern is ___-___
e.g. Hon=book, ga= the , hon ga
In English, content words (key words) typically come after function words (support main key words), so the dominant stress pattern is short-long
e.g. the book
In Japanese, content words typically come before function words, so the dominant stress pattern is long-short
e.g. Hon=book, ga= the , hon ga
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Auditory stream integration refers to
grouping notes/tones/sounds, etc. together within a single perceived stream to form a coherent melody
181
Similar to the Gestalt principle of similarity and/or proximity, tones that are close together (in pitch) should be more likely to be ___ ___ i.e. as part of a single/coherent melody
Similar to the Gestalt principle of similarity and/or proximity, tones that are close together (in pitch) should be more likely to be grouped together i.e. as part of a single/coherent melody
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The most common interval size between notes within a melody is 1-2 ___
semitones
183
Certain trajectories of notes are also common, such as the __ ___ (involving rising and falling tones)
Certain trajectories of notes are also common, such as the arch trajectory (involving rising and falling tones)
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In general, large 'jumps' in the distance between notes:
- are more likely to __ (rather than __) in pitch
- Often involve a melody 'turning around ' to fill in the gap (___ ___) i.e. the 'missing' notes between whatever notes were just played
In general, large 'jumps' in the distance between notes:
- are more likely to increase (rather than decrease) in pitch
- Often involve a melody 'turning around ' to fill in the gap (gap fill) i.e. the 'missing' notes between whatever notes were just played
185
Tonality
organizing pitches around the note associated with the composition's key (referred to as the tonic)
186
Beginning /ending compositions with the __ __ is a common practice e.g. a song in the key of C might start and end on a C note
Beginning /ending compositions with the tonic note is a common practice e.g. a song in the key of C might start and end on a C note
187
Tonal hierarchy
indicates how well each note fits into a scale
188
2 general approaches to understanding relationship between music and emotion
1) cognitivist approach
2) emotivist approach
189
Cognitivist approach
listeners can perceive the emotional meaning of a piece of music, but that they do not actually feel the emotions - not feeling but can categorize
190
Emotivist approach
listeners emotional response to music involves actually feeling the emotions
191
Music is sometimes described as producing '__' : a nervous emotion or tremor caused by intense emotional excitement.. producing a slight shudder or tightening through the body, or '__' (goosebumps)
Music is sometimes described as producing 'thrills' : a nervous emotion or tremor caused by intense emotional excitement.. producing a slight shudder or tightening through the body, or 'chills' (goosebumps)
192
Most commonly reported physical responses of musicians
shivers, laughter, lump in throat, tears (evidence of strong emotions when hearing music)
193
Like language, music has ___ (or 'rules') that govern how we expect the pieces are supposed to come together
Like language, music has syntax (or 'rules') that govern how we expect the pieces are supposed to come together
194
In the context of language, the ___ ___ ___ is thought to index awareness of syntax violations
In the context of language, the P600 ERP component is thought to index awareness of syntax violations
195
Patel et al. recorded P600 activity for listeners of a phrase that was followed by one of the 3 target chord:
1)Chord from same key
2) Chord from a different but near key (sounds wrong but not as wrong as if played out of key)
3) Chord from a far key
They found larger ___ for the target chord from the far key (3) and to a lesser extent the near key (2) supporting the idea that people recognize these ___ in similar ways as with language
Patel et al. recorded P600 activity for listeners of a phrase that was followed by one of the 3 target chord:
1)Chord from same key
2) Chord from a different but near key (sounds wrong but not as wrong as if played out of key)
3) Chord from a far key
They found larger P600s for the target chord from the far key (3) and to a lesser extent the near key (2) supporting the idea that people recognize these violations in similar ways as with language
196
Electrical responses
unexpected notes can generate a response that is referred to as the early right anterior negativity (ERAN), which occurs in the right hemisphere just a bit earlier than the P600
197
Brain scanning:
3 areas that can become particularly active while listening to music are the ___ (associated with processing emotion), the __ __ (associated with reward, release of DA), and the __ (associated with memories- dementia patients being able to unlock memories with music)
Brain scanning:
3 areas that can become particularly active while listening to music are the amygdala (associated with processing emotion), the nucleus accumbens (associated with reward, release of DA), and the hippocampus (associated with memories- dementia patients being able to unlock memories with music)
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Salimpoor et al. asked participants to rate the intensity of 'chills' and pleasure while listening to music and found that both were positively associated with activity in the ___
This was interpreted as relating to ___ ___/release (increasing reward)
Salimpoor et al. asked participants to rate the intensity of 'chills' and pleasure while listening to music and found that both were positively associated with activity in the NAcc
This was interpreted as relating to dopaminergic activity/release (increasing reward)
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Mallik et al. found that __, an opiate antagonist, reduced the emotional response to music
This may implicate ___ in the emotional experience of music
Mallik et al. found that naltrexone, an opiate antagonist, reduced the emotional response to music
This may implicate endorphins in the emotional experience of music
200
Amygdala damage has been found to:
- ___/___ the pleasurable musical 'chill' response
- disrupt the ability to ______
Amygdala damage has been found to:
- reduce/prevent the pleasurable musical 'chill' response
- disrupt the ability to perceive the emotional tone of a piece of music
201
Patients with ___ damage have been found to rate dissonant music as being slightly pleasant (in contrast to healthy controls, which rate it as unpleasant)
Patients with parahippocampal damage have been found to rate dissonant music as being slightly pleasant (in contrast to healthy controls, which rate it as unpleasant)
