Midterm 1 Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
What are the 3 major divisions of the brain?
A
Cerebral Cortex (outer; ridges), Subcortical Structures (inner; hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus), and Brain Stem and Cerebellum
2
Q
What are the 4 lobes of the brain?
A
Frontal, Temporal, Occipital, and Parietal Lobe
3
Q
What does the Frontal lobe do?
A
High-level functions; reasoning, planning, override and control, social responses, motor control, emotions, problem solving
4
Q
What does the Temporal lobe do?
A
Perceptual/Memory interface; auditory perception/sensation, auditory recognition, visual recognition, and long-term memory`
5
Q
What does the Occipital lobe do?
A
Visual processing
6
Q
What does the Parietal lobe do?
A
Body/World interface; touch, integrating sensory information across senses, spatial processing, and attention
7
Q
What is the Insula?
A
Awareness of bodily state, empathy, gustatory, disgust, pain perception - located INSide lobes
8
Q
What does the Cingulate Cortex do?
A
Cognitive control, error detection, conflict monitoring
9
Q
What does the Hippocampus do?
A
Long-term memory and spatial navigation
10
Q
What does the Thalamus do?
A
Relay station for all the senses; regulation of sleep and arousal
11
Q
What does the Amygdala do?
A
Emotion processing and memory for emotive stimuli
12
Q
What does the Cerebellum do?
A
Integrates sensory input, tracks timing of events, coordinates muscle movements, and motor control
13
Q
What does the Superior Colliculus do?
A
Visual processing
14
Q
What does the Inferior Colliculus do?
A
Auditory processing
15
Q
What does the Medulla Oblongata do?
A
Relays signals (brain-spinal cord) and controls autonomic functions (heartbeat, breathing, etc.)
16
Q
What are the 3 type of Neurons?
A
Sensory, Interneurons, and Motor
17
Q
What do Sensory neurons do?
A
Vision, touch, audition, taste, and olfaction
18
Q
What do Interneurons do?
A
Computations that involve perception, memory, thinking, emotion, and consciousness
19
Q
What do Motor neurons do?
A
Eye and body movements
20
Q
Describe the input stage (stage 1)
A
Many signals come in at the dendrites
21
Q
Describe the processing stage (stage 2)
A
Signals summate, adding and cancelling, possibly reaching critical threshold within the cell body
22
Q
Describe the output stage (stage 3)
A
If input is strong enough (exceeds threshold), then the neuron passes the signal along via its axon
23
Q
What is the synapse, and what stage does it belong to?
A
Where the axon of one neuron connects to the dendrite of another neuron - input stage (stage 1)
24
Q
Why is experimental control important?
A
To differ between Correlation vs Causation
25
What is Correlation?
Linear relationship between two variables
26
What is Causation?
Producing an effect (a "cause" is something that produces a particular effect)
27
What are two reasons why Correlation DOES NOT equal Causation?
Wrong direction and third variable
28
What is Wrong Direction?
Even if one causes the other, you cannot say whether A causes B or vice-versa
29
What is Third Variable?
Always possible that there's an unmeasured 3rd variable that is actually the underlying cause for both variables
30
What is phrenology?
(Franz Gall) detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities - considered a case study in bad science
31
Why was phrenology important?
The idea of localization of function is important
32
What is memory?
Neurocognitive capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information
33
What are the two examples of Declarative/Explicit long term memory?
Events (episodic) and Facts (semantics)
34
What are the four examples of Nondeclarative/Implicit long term memory?
Procedural (how to do certain things), Perceptual priming,` Classic conditioning, and Nonassociative
35
Who was Patient HM?
H.M suffered from epilepsy and required removal of the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe, producing severe memory loss
36
What is Miller's Magic Number #7?
A study that showed there was a limited capacity for short term memory - STM could hold 7 (plus or minus 2) items. Also, it showed that there is no long term memory capacity
37
What are the 3 key features of the Modal Model?
1) Rapid decay is STM, slower decay in LTM 2) STM relies on acoustic/phonological codes, while LTM relies on Semantics
3) STM is gateway to LTM - stresses the importance of actively reviewing encountered material in order to move it to LTM
38
Who is Patient KC?
Fell off a bike at age 17 and damaged a region of the parietal-temporal lobes around the sylvian fissure, which led to severely impaired STM, but normal LTM
39
Why is Patient KC important?
Opposed the modal model, and proved that STM is not the gateway to LTM
40
Working Memory
The small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks; wanted to emphasize the functions of STM in supporting various aspects of performance
41
What is Phonological Loop, and why is it important?
The phonological loop is a component of working memory model that deals with spoken and written material. PL is used for short-term rehearsal, but not critical for transferring information to LTM
42
What is encoding?
How we perceive/interpret our experiences, which has a large influence on retention
43
What is retention?
Benefits from semantic encoding; when we meaningfully associate new information to what we already know
44
What is Anterograde Amnesia?
Impaired memory for experiences that occur after incident/lesion that caused amnesia
45
What is Retrograde Amnesia?
Impaired memory for experiences that occurred prior to incident/lesion that caused amnesia
46
What is recollection?
Remembering specific details and context of source
47
What is familiarity?
Knowing or feeling that item/object/person is "old" without remembering specifcs
48
What is the hippocampus' role in recollection and familiarity?
The hippocampus plays a role in recollection, it is less clear whether it also plays a role in familiarity
49
What is Ribot's Law?
Recent memories are more affected than remote memories
50
What is rapid consolidation?
New memories (episodic and somewhat semantic) seem to be stored in a hippocampal-dependent way
51
What is slow consolidation?
Older memories become hippocampal-independent
52
What is Standard Consolidation Theory (SCT)?
Memories initially depend on hippocampus, and are gradually transferred from and to cortex - time-limited role for hippocampus in declarative memory
53
What is Multiple-Trace Theory?
Each time an event is remembered, new memory is created. The older the event, the greater the number of traces and more resilient to damage. Time-limited role of hippocampus in retrieval of semantic memories, but permanent role in retrieval of contextually-detailed episodic memory
54
What is temporal gradient?
Greater loss of memory for occurrences from the recent past than for occurrences from long ago
55
Why is the basal ganglia important?
Plays an important role in procedural memory
56
What are two types of receptors in the eye?
Rods and Cones
57
What are Rods?
Receptors in the eye that have high-sensitivity, but low-resolution vision (poor acuity), no color (black and white), and good for low-light conditions
58
What are Cones?
Receptors in the eye that are good for high-resolution vision, and for color vision
59
What is Adaptation?
There is a gradual decline in the reaction of any stimulus if the stimulus persists unchanged. Sensory systems respond more to change in stimulation
60
Our visual system is _______?
"Cross-wired" meaning left visual field images are communicated to right visual cortex and vice-versa
61
What is V1?
Primary Visual Cortex; it is the simplest, earliest cortical visual area located in the occipital lobe. Responds to lines and edges, and has retinotopic map
62
What is V2?
Like V1, it responds to lines and edges, and has a retinotopic map, but it also responds to illusory lines; suggesting it combines input from V1 and higher order cortical areas coding for expectations based on experience
63
What stages of V are part of the ventral visual pathway?
V3 and V4
64
What is the ventral visual pathway?
It goes from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe and is used for recognition - "what"
65
What is the dorsal visual pathway?
It goes from occipital lobe to parietal lobe and is used for actions or "where"
66
What is V3 used for?
To identify dynamic shapes
67
What is V4 used for?
To identify shapes and colors
68
What is V5 used for?
To identfiy movement; codes for direction of motion
69
What is spatial resolution?
Spatial resolution refers to the capacity a technique has to tell you exactly which area of the brain is active. Greater spatial resolution allows psychologists to discriminate between different brain regions with greater accuracy
70
What is temporal resolution?
Temporal resolution refers to the accuracy of the scanner in relation to time: or how quickly the scanner can detect changes in brain activity
71
What is fMRI? Also, is it high or low in the following categories: spatial and temporal resolution. Causal vs Correlation
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain-scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task. fMRI works on the premise that neurons in the brain that are the most active (during a task) use the most energy. Spatial: High, Temporal: Low, Correlational
72
What is EEG? Also, is it high or low in the following categories: spatial and temporal resolution. Causal vs Correlation
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test that measures electrical activity in the brain using small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to the scalp. Spatial: Low, Temporal: High, Correlational
73
What is Single Cell Recording? Also, is it high or low in the following categories: spatial and temporal resolution. Causal vs Correlation
Single-Cell Recording is a technique used in research to observe changes in voltage or current in a neuron. In this technique, an animal, usually anesthetized, has a microelectrode inserted into its skull and into a neuron in the area of the brain that is of interest. Spatial: High, Temporal: High, Correlational
74
What is TMS? Also, is it high or low in the following categories: spatial and temporal resolution. Causal vs Correlation
TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation) is a non-invasive technique that enables us to stimulate the human brain function. Spatial: High, Temporal: High, Causal
75
How long does Long-term memory last? And what brain regions, if impaired, affect long-term memory?
Lasts for minutes, hours, days, years, lifetime (very high capacity). Damage to hippocampus (part of medial temporal lobe)
results in impaired long term memory
76
How long does short term memory last?
Lasts for seconds (while you actively maintain it); very limited capacity; constantly
updated/refreshed
77
What is the key evidence for distinction between STM and LTM?
Patient HM who could form new STM but not LTM, and Patient KF who had intact LTM but had a severe deficit of STM
78
What are the three parts of Working Memory Model?
Central Executive, Phonological Loop, and Visuospatial Sketchpad
79
How did they test the Working Memory Model?
"Dual Task Approach" Subjects given primary task (e.g., reading, writing, problem-solving). “Load up” working memory by having them remember 3 or 6
digits during primary task performance
80
What was the result of the Dual Task Approach?
3-item load doesn’t affect primary task performance
“3-for-free”. 6-item load does affect primary task performance.
81
What is Central Executive?
The Central Executive (general all-purpose processor that can hold onto a few items) is assisted by 2 domain-specific subsystems, the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. Critical for LTM.
82
What is episodic buffer?
A new subsystem in the updated working memory model. Short-term memory for full-blown episodes that integrates information from phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad and holds that information.
Pathway to LTM
83
How was LTM encoding tested? What did the test consist of? What were the results?
Craik & Lockhart: Levels of Processing View of Encoding. Experimentally control encoding processes using incidental encoding tasks.
Semantic task (“deeper” encoding): Abstract/Concrete
judgment. Non-semantic task: Uppercase/Lowercase judgment. Retention benefits from semantic encoding
(meaningfully associating new information with what we
already know)
84
What did Blocked fMRI study using levels of processing task reveal?
People have better/deeper encoding during the semantic
judgment task than the non-semantic judgment task (“deeper” encoding).
85
In the Blocked Design study by Wegner, in what regions was there greater activity when comparing semantic vs non-semantic processing?
In the left inferior frontal lobe and parahippocampal region of medial temporal lobe (MTL)
86
What is the event-related design? What 2 regions showed greater activity?
Compared activation at ENCODING for words that were later remembered vs. forgotten. Left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) and Left parahippocampal region - same regions that lit up during better encoding
87
Why isn’t hippocampal activity during encoding (e.g., of a list of words) linked with subsequent remembering and forgetting?
Hippocampus is specifically linked with successful encoding of
RELATIONAL/ASSOCIATIVE information –e.g., forming a new link between a face and a name
88
How is encoding usually studied?
Encoding is usually studied through Neuroimaging, such as EEG. It typically involves remembering a list of words.
89
What is episodic (autobiographical) memory?
Specific event
memory of personal experiences. Also involved in lab procedures such as memorizing words,
objects, faces, spatial information, etc.
90
What is semantic memory?
Factual, conceptually-based
knowledge (e.g., “Who was the president in 1990?”)
91
What is the evidence for the distinction between episodic
and semantic memory?
Amnesia: Deficits mostly in episodic memory due to damage to medial temporal lobe (MTL) structures, including hippocampus. Impaired on recall/recognition tests for words, objects,
faces, spatial information. Impaired for event memory. Basically, amnesia affects episodic memory
92
Can amnesic patients acquire new semantic memories, despite
impairment in episodic memory?
Yes. Patient H.M could acquire some new vocabulary and knowledge of public figures (very limited). Patient K.C could learn new computer definitions,
commands, and programming.
93
Why was Patient HM important?
Patient H.M. is cited as important evidence for the role of the hippocampus in memory but need to interpret with caution. Operation removed multiple components of MTL, not just
hippocampus. Thus, we cannot make strong conclusions about the
hippocampus and memory
94
Who was patient RB?
Selective damage to hippocampus (CA1 region). Did show episodic memory impairment, but not nearly as
bad as Patient H.M.
95
What is rapid consolidation (more accepted idea)?
Contributes to the
initial storage of declarative memories (episodic and to
some extent semantic). That is, new memories seem to be
stored in a hippocampal-dependent way.
96
What is slower consolidation (more controversial idea)?
Hippocampus also interacts with neocortex (i.e., other parts
of the brain) over the course of days/months/years, leads to
stable memory trace in the neocortex that no longer
depends on the hippocampus. That is, older memories may
become hippocampal-independent.
97
How is recollection/familiarity tested?
Through fMRI, by examining the left and right hippocampus. They also use the Remember/Know Paradigm
98
What is explicit memory?
Memory of which we are consciously aware
99
What is implicit memory?
Not necessarily available to our conscious awareness
100
What is the evidence for the differentiation between
explicit and implicit memory?
Amnesics show intact implicit memory. Patient H.M. shows intact procedural memory (e.g., intact learning on a mirror tracing task). Amnesics show intact perceptual priming, even after a delay. Word fragment completion. Picture fragment completion
101
What is priming?
Implicit memory effect where exposure to one stimulus influences one’s later response to another stimulus
102
What is priming associated with?
In the brain, priming is associated with DECREASED activation over repeated presentations of a stimulus
103
What is the temporal pole? What is the result if damaged?
“Semantic hub” of the brain, important for representing semantic information (i.e., information about meaning). Damage to this region results in semantic dementia (loss of word
meaning)
104
What are the functions of Constructive Memory?
Economy of Storage Hypothesis and Constructive Episodic Simulation Hypothesis
105
What is the economy of storage hypothesis?
We typically don’t need
to remember every detail of every experience; sometimes
we’re better off remembering the gist.
106
What is the Constructive Episodic Simulation Hypothesis?
Episodic memory traditionally defined as the ability to recollect our past experiences – is also important for the future. We
use episodic memory to imagine possible future
scenarios, and this constructive activity requires flexible access to elements of past experience – but the flexibility of episodic memory may render it prone to error.
107
What is the evidence for commonalities between past and future events?
Amnesics: Difficulties recalling the past and imagining personal futures/novel scenes (e.g., Patient K.C.). Aging and psychopathology: Similar reductions in episodic detail in past and future events in normal aging, dementia, depression, schizophrenia, & PTSD. Neuroimaging: Similar areas active when remembering past events and imagining future events
108
What is the Default Mode Network?
The brain's default network is a set of regions more active during passive tasks than tasks demanding focused external attention. One hypothesis is that the default network contributes to internal modes of cognition used when remembering, thinking about the future, and mind wandering.
109
What regions compromise the Default Mode Network?
Retrospenial cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, medial temporal lobe, lateral parietal cortex, and lateral temporal cortex
110
What is the relationship between the Default Mode Network and remembering the past/imagining the future? What's the evidence?
There's a casual relationship. TMS to left angular gyrus (lateral parietal cortex) led to
reduction in episodic event details generated when
remembering past and imagining future events, had no effect on semantic/factual details.
111
What brain region is important for phonological loop?
Left perisylvian cortex (junction between parietal and temporal lobe). Damaged in KF who had verbal STM deficits but intact LTM
112
What brain region corresponds to central executive?
Dorsolateral and Ventrolateral Cortex. Most important component for short term/working memory
113
What brain regions are important for encoding?
Left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) and left parahippocampal cortex (i.e., shows greater activity during
deeper encoding, greater activity for words later remembered vs. forgotten)
114
What is the inverse optic problem?
Retinal images are ambiguous, and
any image can represent many possible realities
115
Describe the visual process
Visual system makes assumptions and uses those
assumptions to make inferences. It’s an INFERENTIAL, CONSTRUCTIVE process. Assumes that configurations are “non-accidental” - for the simplest, most probable explanation
116
What is the evidence from visual illusions?
What we see is a “cognitive
construct” (our brain’s best guess) that is most likely to be there given what our visual system knows
117
Overview of Visual Pathway
There is energy in the world, in the form of light. Light enters the eye, image formed on retina. Receptors on retina capture that energy and transform it into neural activity. Signals transmitted down visual pathway
118
What is the Retina?
Inner coat of eye
119
What is the Fovea?
No blood vessels here, area of densely packed receptors
(cones only)
120
What is the Blind Spot
Where optic nerve and blood vessels exit the eye
121
Describe Ganglion Cells
Center-surround configuration with on and
off regions, sensitive to edges (contrast between light/dark). Sensitive to CONTRAST between dark and light
122
Why do we have two visual systems/pathways?
We have competing computational goals-object
recognition vs. object location in space. We can’t have a different neuron to represent every shape in every location and every size. Having 2 systems dedicated for object recognition and spatial vision is most efficient!
123
What is the Inferior Temporal Cortex? What pathway is it a part of?
Inferior Temporal (IT) Cortex is the cerebral cortex on the inferior convexity of the temporal lobe in primates including humans. It is crucial for visual object recognition and is considered to be the final stage in the ventral cortical visual system. Ventral pathway.
124
What four categories are part of the IT cortex?
FFA; Fusiform Face Area, PPA;Parahippocampal Place Area, EBA; Extrastriate Body Area, LOC; lateral occipital complex
125
What does the Fusiform Face Area respond to?
FFA responds selectively to (intact) faces, over Objects, Scrambled faces, Houses, Hands
126
What does Parahippocampal Place area respond to?
PPA responds selectively to scenes, over faces and objects (although still responds weakly to objects)
127
What does the Extrastriate Body Area respond to?
EBA responds more to bodies over other objects/shapes
128
What does the Lateral Occipital Complex respond to?
LOC responds more to objects and shapes (than textures). Seems to contain an alphabet for shapes
129
Why are functions localized in ventral stream?
Shorter wiring (efficiency), Independence (no interference from neighbors), Scalability (adding new bits without reprogramming
everything)
130
What is blindsight?
Lesions to primary visual cortex (V1) leads to loss of conscious visual experience (report that they are completely blind). However, they can accurately localize objects and reach for them. Shape their hands appropriately to grasp objects of different shapes and sizes. Can sometimes move eyes towards target
131
How can blindsight patients “see” despite no conscious experience of
vision?
Visual information basically bypasses the primary visual cortex. There's also the possibility of an alternative pathway.
