Midterm 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the ranking for Canadian Meat Production?
A
- Poultry
- Pork
- Beef
2
Q
What is the ranking for the World Beef Consumption By Country?
A
- Uruguay
- Argentina
- Hong Kong
- United States
- Brazil
… - Canada
3
Q
What is the Canadian per Capita Meat Consumption ranking?
A
- Chicken - on the rise
- Beef
- Pork
4
Q
What is the ranking of countries with the most cattle?
A
- India
- Brazil
- China
- United States
… - Canada
5
Q
What is the Canadian Total Cattle and Calves?
A
Increase from 1988
Decrease from 2006 to Present
6
Q
Top Beef Producing Nations
A
- United States
- Brazil
- China
- European Union
- India
… - Canada
7
Q
How can the US be 1st in beef production when they were 4th in cattle inventory?
A
- Finishing them faster (efficiency)
- Brazil is a grazing system for most of their life, feedlot during the last 90 days, lighter carcass weights
8
Q
Why is India beef production so low compared to its inventory?
A
India is largely from water buffalo
9
Q
How does the graph of Canadian Beef Production fluctuate throughout the years? (includes slaughter exports and offals)
A
Increase since 2014, however, in 2021 and 2022 there has been a decrease due to feed prices and droughts
10
Q
Who are the Top 10 Beef Exporting Nations of 2022?
A
- Brazil
- India
- United States
- Australia
- European Union
- Argentina
- New Zealand
- Canada
- Uruguay
- Paraguay
11
Q
Who are the main Canadian Beef Imports of 2022?
A
- U.S. - 57.3%
- EU-27 - 11.8%
- New Zealand - 7.9%
12
Q
How does the schematic of the beef cattle production cycle in Canada work?
A
Late winter/spring calving
Summer grazing
Winter feeding
Stocker programs
Feedlot finishing
Slaughter
13
Q
What are the four systems in the North American Beef Industry?
A
- Cow-calf
- Stocker
- Feedlot
- Packer
14
Q
What are examples of conventional production systems?
A
Implants, feed additives, antimicrobials
15
Q
What are examples of alternative production systems? (niche markets)
A
- Grass fed
- Natural beef
- Certified organic
- Locally grown
16
Q
What are the beef breeds?
A
- Bos taurus
- British breeds
- Angus, hereford, Shorthorn, and
Galloway
- European (Continental) breeds
- Charolais, Simmental, Limousin,
Gelbvieh - Bos taurus indicus (zebu cattle) - Brazil
17
Q
Why do feedlots like the British x European breed crosses?
A
They grow fast and have heavier carcasses with high quality grade
18
Q
What is a typical western Canadian production cycle?
A
- Calves are born in spring (Feb to June)
- Weaned in the fall (Oct to Nov) @ 6 to 8 months of age
- At weaning depending on weight and frame size:
- Backgrounded over winter for grass next spring
- Backgrounded over winter for feedlot finishing in the spring
- Sent directly to the feedlot for finishing
19
Q
what are the benefits of spring calving?
A
- Higher quality and quantity of forages to support lactation
- Minimize issues of heat stress on reproduction of the cows that may happen from July to Sept)
20
Q
Which Canadian provinces have the highest number of beef cows?
A
- Alberta - 40.6%
- SK - 31%
- Manitoba - 10.4%
21
Q
How has the number of farms reporting beef cows in Canada changed throughout the years?
A
The number of farms with beef cows has decreases, however, the number of cows per farm has increased
22
Q
What is the average number of head per farm in Alberta, SK, and Manitoba?
A
Alberta - 253
SK - 194
Manitoba - 167
23
Q
What is the 20 year average for Canadian beef cow culling rate?
A
11%
24
Q
Which region has the most beef cows and where does Alberta and SK stand?
A
- Texas
- Alberta
- SK
25
What is the purpose of the Stocker/backgrounding phase?
- For steers and non-replacement heifers that have small frames to increase lean and skeletal growth before finishing
- Higher forage diets (50 to 70% forage)
- In system until 300 to 400 kg (650 to 900lbs)
- After they move to the finishing phase
26
What is program feeding?
When forages are too expensive, they're fed a restricted higher grain diet (limit fed). This promotes easier adaptation to finishing diets
27
What is the diet like in the finishing phase?
- High energy diets (nutrient dense diets)
- Mostly grain and small amounts forage
- By-product feeds
- Vitamins and minerals
- Fed as TMR
28
What is the purpose of the finishing phase?
- Cattle are sent to feedlots - which was started to produce more food faster
- Competition for land with grain
- Become larger and more specialized
- In Alberta and SK - avg feedlot holds around 10,000 animals
29
What are the diets formulated for?
- Increase growth rate
- Increase feed efficiency
- Increase Animals health
- Increase carcass quality
- Decrease cost of gain or maximize profit
- Cattle are fed to attain carcass composition desired by market (28 to 29% body fat - body score of 8 or AAA)
30
What are the environmental concerns surrounding intensive beef production?
- GHG emissions
- Air quality
- Soil/water quality
- Human health
- Impacts of air-pollutant emissions on
human respiratory health
- Water contamination affecting human
health
31
What air emissions are a concern when it comes to beef production?
- GHG emissions
- Methane (CH4)
- Nitrous oxide (N2O)
- All other air-pollutant emissions
- Ammonia (NH3), PM, VOC
*CO2 from animal respiration is generally not considered a net source of GHG emissions, since it is assumed that the C sequestered via photosynthesis by the plants the livestock are consuming is equal to the respiratory C the animals release*
32
How are the two GHG emitted?
CH4:
- Enteric fermentation
- Anaerobically stored manure
N2O:
- Associatedwith emission from soil that has been fertilizedwith manure or solid manure storage systems
- Nitrification and Denitrification
- ammonium (NH4+) ---- oxidized to NO3- ----- reduced to dinitrogen (N2)
33
What is the difference between CO2 and CH4?
CO2 = long-lived gas, stay for hundreds of years in the atmosphere
CH4 = short-lived gas, breaks down in about 12 years
34
What percent does Agriculture contribute to GHG emissions according to Environment and Climate Change Canada?
8.1%
35
What percent does Agriculture contribute to methane emissions according to Environment Canada 2014?
26%
36
Which GHG has the highest emission in beef production in Canada?
Enteric CH4 (63%)
Manure N2O (23%
37
Do feedlots or cow-calf herds have the highest emissions?
Cow-calf herd (80%)
Feedlot (20%)
38
What percent do beef cattle contribute to Canada's GHG?
2.4%
39
How has the carbon footprint in Canadian Beef Production changed and does it compare to other countries?
Beef produced in Canada today produces 15% smaller carbon footprint from 30 years ago. This is comparable to studies in Australia and USA
40
What are the effects of removing growth enhancing technologies, such as steroid implants, in-feed ionophores, in-feed hormones, and beta-adrenergic agonists?
- Increase in animal population (11.8%)
- Increase in Feedstuffs (10.6%)
- Increase in land area (10%)
- Increase in water use (4.2%)
- Increase in C emissions (9.8%)
41
What would happen to GHG if we eliminated all animal production?
- 28% GHG reduction
- Less essential nutrients (Ca, essential fatty acids, vit A, B12)
- Only 2.6% reduction in total US GHG
42
How can we mitigate GHG?
- Increase cattle production efficiency (genetics, diet, GETs)
- Promote health and reduce mortality rates
Improving weight gain reduces GHG emission per unit of beef produced
- Improving fertility, pregnancy rate, and successful deliveries (1 calf per cow per year)
43
How does NH3 affect air quality?
- Primary air pollutant from manure
- Livestock are estimated to be the single largest source of NH3 emissions in the US, producing 71.3% of annual emissions
- NH3 produced by mixing of urine and feces (manure)
- Ammonia reacts with acid pollutants such as the products of SO2 and NOx emissions to produce fine ammonium (NH4+) containing aerosol
- While the lifetime of NH3 is relatively short, NH4+ may travel much longer distances
44
Where does particulate matter (PM) emissions come from and how does it affect air quality?
- locomotion of the animals on dry lots, the exhaust of animal housing ventilation systems
- movement of farm equipment on site
- indirectly through the formation of secondary aerosol particles that form in part from NH3 emissions from the livestock manure
- visibility and human health can be negatively impacted
45
Where does Volatile organic compounds (VOC) come from and how does it affect air quality?
- VFA, aromatic compounds, dimethyl disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS)
- Result primarily from the fermented feeds fed to livestock
- Some minor emissions result from the fresh manure of livestock as well
- Photochemical ozone (O3) production is driven in part by VOC
- VOC can lead to oxidation of NO to NO2
(together known as NOx), and in the
presence of sunlight, O3 production can
result
- Not all VOC have the same potential to
drive the formation of O3
- VOC that are emitted
in large quantities from fermented
feeds (e.g., acetic acid) have low
ozone-formation potentials relative
to other anthropogenic sources
46
What are symptoms of high particulate matter, Nitrogen oxides (NOx), and Ozone (O3)?
- Promotes eye, nose, and throat irritation
- Decreased lung function
- Aggravation of respiratory or heart disease
- Pneumonia and asthma
47
What can affect soil and water quality?
- manure amended agricultural land and runoff from livestock facilities
- gaseous NH3 emissions
- NH3 in the atmosphere can be deposited either dry (particles) or wet (precipitation) near the originating livestock facility and can contribute to nitrogen pollution in waterways not adjacent to the facility
48
What are some water quality concerns?
- Nitrates
- NO3- easily lost from the soil structure via leaching into groundwater
- Phosphorus
- typically lost through soil erosion and in runoff from agricultural fields applied with manure
- Both N and P contribute to the eutrophication of water bodies and water ways
- contamination with toxins, blue-green algae, pathogens (bacteria, protozoa, virus), chemicals, anti-microbial resistance (antibiotic use)
49
What are some examples of the two pathogens: Protozoa and Bacteria?
- Protozoa
- Giardia
- Cryptosporidium
- Bacteria
- Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7
- Shiga-producing non O157 E. coli
- Campylobacter spp.
- Listeria monocytogenes
- Yersinia enterocolitica
- Mycobacterium spp.
- Bacillus spp.
- Clostridium spp.
50
What was the Walkerton Water Tragedy?
E. coli contamination in the town's water supply from cattle. Resulted in around 2000 people being sick and 6 deaths.
51
What are some of the regulations put in place for feedlots?
- The Agricultural Operations Act in 1995
- address complaints of agricultural nuisance, protect water resources, ensuring adequate waste storage and waste management plans
- decides which intensive livestock operations (ILOs) require regulatory approval
52
What qualifications would require and ILO to have approval from the Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture?
- If liquid waste is to be stored in an earthen manure storage
- If the size of the operation is more than 300 AU (450 kg BW)
- If the size of the operation is between 20 and 300 AU and within 300 m of a watercourse or 30 m of a well not controlled by the operator
53
Who else is in charge of regulatory oversight other than the Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture?
- Saskatchewan Water Security Agency
- Regulates ground and surface water use, ground water investigation, drainage, aquatic habitat protection and domestic waste lagoons
- Rural municipalities
- Generally have discretionary use approval requirements
- Saskatchewan Ministry of Labour Relations and Workplace Safety
- OHS regulations
54
What is the purpose of Regulatory oversight?
- Intent is to ensure feedlots are sited, designed and operated properly
- Two overriding principles are ground water protection and surface water protection
55
What does a regulatory oversight entail?
- Approval process requires a site investigation (professional engineering firm)
- Determine any environmental sensitivities with site/assess the risk of contamination
- Topography
- Drilling of bore holes - assess underlying geology including aquifer(s)location
- Soil sampling/ physical and chemical properties
- Vertical and horizontal hydraulic gradients
- Geologically secure, variable or sensitive site
56
How to ensure surface water protection?
- well drained pens
- In SK and Alberta, contain potential surface run-off incase of abnormal precipitation
- holding ponds of a sufficient size
57
What is a Nutrient Management Plan and what are the components? *****
- Sufficient land area to receive manure produced
- SK: based on crop nitrogen requirements
Components:
- Field assessment
- Manure inventory
- Manure storage plan
- Nutrient application plan
- Land management plan
- Record-keeping system
58
How can an operator ensure surface water protection?
- Adherence to proper spreading guidelines
- Surface application vs incorporation
- Compositing vs applying fresh
Monitoring soil nutrient accumulation - Phosphorus
59
What is the approval process for a regulatory oversight?
1. Public process
2. Site characterization
3. Application
4. Review and decision
5. Audit
60
Why is site selection important?
- potential environmental risks to consider
- reduce development costs
- provide operational efficiencies
- minimize difficulties in obtaining regulatory approvals
- Assess the site's capacity to meet the geographical, physical and regulatory requirements of a livestock development
- Assess local/community perception of feedlot developments
- separation from water bodies
- Permeability of site
60
Why is site selection important?
- potential environmental risks to consider
- reduce development costs
- provide operational efficiencies
- minimize difficulties in obtaining regulatory approvals
61
What to consider during site selection for a feedlot?
- Assess the site's capacity to meet the geographical, physical and regulatory requirements of a livestock development
- Assess local/community perception of feedlot developments
- separation from water bodies
- Permeability of site
- Avoid porous soils or sites that may consist of fractured bedrock
- Groundwater investigations
- Avoid shallow groundwater areas or areas close to surface water bodies
62
What are the proper manure storage techniques?
- Manure must be incorporated into the soil within 48 hrs of being applied to the land (exemption where the manure is being used on a forage or direct seeded crop)
- No manure applied within 30 m of a water well
- A minimum of 10 m seperation must be maintained from a body of water where manure is being applied by subsurface injection and 30 m where manure is applied by incorporation
- catch basins must be able to hold nine months of manure runoff
- Avoid areas where there is a shallow water table
- Maintain a minimum of 100 m setback from a spring or water well and 30 m from a body of water
63
What are some important criteria for a Feedlot Pen Design?
- Diversion of up-slope run-on
- Pen and roadway drainage
- Pen slopes of 2 to 4 % from pen front (feed bunk) to back are ideal
- Pens constructed on soils with higher clay content drain better
- Drains to settling area
- Runoff leaving the back of the pens needs to be collected and directed to the settling area by using a drainage channel
- Drains should slope 0.5 to 2% (max)
64
What is a settling area?
- Removes solids being carried in the runoff before the runoff enters the catch basin
- Settling area is a large, shallow, flat-bottomed area with a firm base to allow removal of solids with a front-end loader
65
What is a holding pond or catch basin?
- Must be designed by a professional engineer
- Catch basin must be emptied onto cropland when full (or nearly full) to ensure adequate catchment volume for the next runoff event
66
What is the length of time for short-term solid manure storage?
Manure should not be stored for more than 6 months over a period of 3 years
67
What is composting?
- Converts C and N into more stable organic forms, allowing the compost to maintain a higher nutrient content and a lower potential for adverse runoff during storage and after being field applied
- Reduces moisture content making trucking to more distant locations feasible
- Natural bio-oxidation processes can be used to reduce the volume of the manure
- Process that decomposes and stabilizes organic material into a humus-like material
- Aerobic process
- Ideal moisture 40 to 60%
- Need maintain aerobic conditions in the pile by turning the pile
- The high temperatures (up to 70 C) destroy weed seeds and harmful microorganisms (ex. E. coli)
- Finished compost volume is about 50 to 75% of the volume of the raw material
68
How to prevent and suppress feedlot odour?
- Site selection
- Corral design
- Feedlot operation and maintenance
- Drainage structures and runoff catch basins
- Mortality management
- Burying, composting
- Manure stockpiles and composting operations
- Feeding strategies
69
What are some BMPs to reduce dust and odour on feedlots?
- Feeding balanced diets so as not to exceed protein requirements of the animal
- Maintain good drainage of a feedlot surface (slope of around 4%)
- Planting of shelter belts and the construction of wind breaks
- Keep the moisture content of the feedlot surface between 25% and 40%
- Scrape the feedlot surface every 3 to 4 months to remove excessive manure accumulation, keeping a manure layer less than 2 inches deep
- Properly compact the feedlot surface and subsurface layers to prevent cattle from loosening the manure
- Allocate 150 square feet (dry climate) corral surface area per animal to reduce dust so the animals' excreted moisture helps keep the surface moist
- Usually around 200 to 250 square feet in western Canada
- Under arid conditions, sprinklers and water trucks can be used to reduce dust emissions from pen floors, alleys and roads
- These practices can have the added benefit of improving animal health and housing conditions
70
What are the qualifications for air quality in indoor feedlots?
- Air quality and ventilation must be maintained so that the ammonia levels are < 25 ppm
- If ammonia can be smelled, it is possible that ammonia levels are high
- Ammonia levels > 25 ppm will cause humans to experience headaches, nausea, and intense burning of the eyes, nose, throat, and skin
71
What are important things to keep records of and for how long?
- Volume or weight of manure produced
- Legal description of the land to which the manure was applied
- Date and volume of manure applied to land
- Information on any person the feedlot operator gave manure to
- Application rates and incorporation methods used
- Required to keep copies of these records for 5 years
72
What are the critical points of NMP?
- Determine amount of manure produced
- Determine nutrient content of manure
Obtain soil-test recommendations
- Calibrate application equipment
- Incorporate manure as quickly as possible
- Monitor soil nutrient and salt levels
- Account for residual nutrient carryover when calculating applications rates
- Identify for residual nutrient carryover when calculating application rates
- Keep accurate and detailed records
- Identify sensitive landscapes with respect to groundwater and surface water vulnerability
- Formulate environmentally responsible diets
- Consider the existence of pathogens in vegetables products fertilized with manure
73
What are some of the stresses that cattle have to endure during transportation?
- Temperature
- Air quality
- Long standing time
- Confinement, less space
- No food or water
- Unfamiliar sounds
- Unpredictable motions (start stops, turns)
- Humidity
- Handling during loading and unloading
- Crowding, commingling
- Issues related to cull cows
74
What is the Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farm Animals for Transportation?
- Drivers should start, drive, and stop their trucks smoothly to prevent animals from being thrown off their feet
- Animals must be protected during transit to prevent suffering caused by exposure to sever weather conditions
75
What is labelled in the Beef Code of Practice?
- Cattle must receive feed and water within five hours prior to loading if transport will exceed 24 hrs
- Cows or heifers that are likely to give birth during the journey must not be transported, unless for veterinary diagnosis or treatment
- Ensure that any loading and unloading equipment, chutes or conveyances are free of hazards in order to minimize the risk of injury
76
What are the guidelines that CFIA has on abattoirs and plants?
- Humane care and handling of food animals at slaughter
- Animal welfare Preventive Control Plans and self-audits for the slaughter of food animals
77
What are the Federal Health of Animals Regulations for the Transport of Animals?
- Selection of animals that are fit for the intended transport and confinement
- Withdrawal of feed, water, and rest (FWR) prior to and in preparation for loading and confinement for transport
- Handling the animals for the purpose of loading
- Loading the animals, including into crates, modules or other contrivance or container if applicable and into conveyances
- Transport and related confinement of animals
- Unloading the animals
- Timing of the post transport access to feed, water, and rest (if applicable)
78
Who is responsible for applying the Federal Health of Animals Regulations for the Transport of Animals?
- Animal owners
- Producers
- Buyers
- Exporters
- Importers
- Transporters
- Animal handlers
- Processors
- Assemble centres (auction markets)
79
What were the changes made for transportation for young calves, healthy cattle, and compromised cattle?
- 12 hrs for young calves (used to be 18hrs)
- 36 hrs for cattle with functioning rumen (used to be 48 hrs)
- 12 hrs for compromised cattle (was never specified)
- Longer routes require unloading and provision for feed, water, and 8 hrs of rest (used to be 5 hrs)
80
What is the Transfer of Care (TOC) and who does it apply for?
TOC document information:
- Condition of the animals upon arrival
- Date, time and place when the animals were last fed, watered and rested
- Date and time the animals arrived at the slaughter establishment or assembly centre
- Once TOC has been acknowledged, responsibility of animal shifts from transporter to the establishment
Applies for:
- Any animal left at a slaughter facility or assembly centre had to be accompanied by a written TOC document
- document ensures that the individual responsible for the care of the animals in question is clearly identified and is accountable for welfare decisions
81
Where does a compromised cattle go in the trailer?
Usually in the doghouse compartment or Back.
82
What is the biggest reason for delay in transportation of cattle?
1. The border
2. Driver needing rest
83
What are issues that overloading and underloading can cause?
- Elevated blood cortisol
- Increased bruising
- Loss of balance
- Increase incidence of mortality
84
What causes a loss of body weight during transportation and at which point of transportation causes the greatest body weight loss?
Causes:
- Temperature
- feed and water deprivation
- urination and defecation
- length
- greatest body weight losses occur during the first miles and hours of transit
85
At what duration of transportation causes an increase of a dead or lame cow and how much more likely will it happen?
After 30 hours the increase of a dead or lame cow multiplies by 8
86
What are the pros and cons of rest stops during transportation of cattle?
Pros:
- Mid-journey rest stops have the potential to alleviate transit-related stress and deprivation of feed and water caused by long-distance transport
- After 36 hrs the health of the cattle is compromised, so rest stop is to give them rest, feed, and water in order to hopefully lessen their risk of illnesses and lameness
Cons:
- Mixing of unfamiliar animals at rest stops could cause stress, risk of aggression, additional loading and unloading, unfamiliar water drinkers and feed bunks
87
What is the difference between compromised cattle and unfit cattle?
Compromised: Animals with reduced capacity to withstand the stress of transportation, may only be transported with special provisions for care, euthanasia, or slaughter
Unfit: Animals with high risk of undue suffering during transportation. May only be transported for veterinary treatment or diagnosis
88
What are examples of special provisions?
- Transport locally and directly to the nearest suitable place where it can receive care and attention or be humanely slaughtered or euthanized
- Load last unload first
- Additional bedding
- Segregate
- Compromised animals should not go through auction markets or assembly yards, and they must not travel long distances to the slaughter facility
89
Give some examples of compromised cattle and unfit cattle.
Compromised cattle:
- Imperfect movement
- Acute frostbite
- Acute penis injury, a rectal or vaginal prolapse
- Bloat (if not weak or already down)
- Laboured breathing
- Partial or total blindness
- A large udder due to heave lactation
- An open wound or laceration
Unfit cattle:
- Animal is unable to stand without assistance
- Animal unable to move without being dragged or carried
- Body condition score indicated emaciation
- Suffering from dehydration or exhaustion
- In shock or dying
- Suspected or confirmed nervous system disorder
- Likely to give birth
- Uterine prolapse
90
What are the risk assessments for the ability to transport cattle?
- The current condition/state of the animal
- The space requirement for the animal
- The total and remaining time without access to FWR
- Foreseeable delays during confinement and transport
- Foreseeable weather and road conditions
- Driver skills, experience and preparation the type and condition of the transport equipment
91
What are the nutritional goals for each phase: receiving, backgrounding, and finishing?
Receiving:
- Adapt cattle to diet and build water intake and DMI
- Adapt cattle to environment
- Adapt cattle to cohorts
Backgrounding:
- Controlled/programmed growth
- Optimize feed efficiency (G:F) and cost
- Support immune responsiveness
Finishing:
- Manage digestive disorders
- Maximize G:F
- Target carcass composition
- Support immune responsiveness
92
What are pre-weaning factors that affect BRD in beef cattle?
- Prenatal nutrition
- Intake of colostrum
- Persistent BVD
- Preweaning health
- Temperament
- Preshipment management
- Preconditioning
- Vaccinations
- Nutritional status
93
What are the post-weaning factors that affect BRD in beef cattle?
- Transportation/marketing stress
- Commingling
- Receiving period management
- Castration, dehorning, etc.
- Implant programs?
- Receiving diet nutrients
- Energy (roughage)
- Protein
- Minerals (Cu, Se, Zn)
- Vitamins (E, antioxidants)
- Prophylactic antibiotics
94
Recommendations for feed bunk design.
- facing bunks N to S to avoid snow drifts and manure build up
- feed road drains away from pens
- Rails prevent cattle from pushing other cattle in and being flipped upside down
95
How does mud affect cattle?
- 4 inches of mud can reduce DM intakes by 10%
- Reduces ability to access bunk
- Increases energy expended
96
Recommendations for water troughs.
- cattle drink 8 to 20 gallons per day depending on weather
- 6" above ground using concrete and 12" away from fence
- 10% of the population must be able to use it
- 1.2" water trough/animal
- 8ft concrete pad around with a 2 to 4 % slope
- 30 ft away from the feed bunks to avoid excess feed in the waterer
- must be cleaned weekly in the summer and twice a month in the winter
97
Cattle behaviour that needs to be considered when creating a cattle handling area:
- cattle want to move away from handler
- cattle want to be with other cattle
- cattle want to go back to where they came from
98
What are newly weaned calves subjected to?
- physiological and psychological stress
- Physical exhaustion
- Immune system suppression
- Viral and bacterial respiratory pathogen challenge
- Water and feed deprivation
- confinement
- handling
- shipping
- mixing
99
What happens to receiving calves when they are stressed?
- reduce appetite (nutrient dense diet needed)
- promotes poor immune response
- increased morbidity and mortality
