Midterm #1 Flashcards
(138 cards)
1
Q
Wihelm Wundt
A
He believed that Psychology is the discipline studying conscious experience. His view on psychology is that of Structuralism.
2
Q
Introspection
A
A technique requiring intensive training to analyze conscious experience into its basic elements (sensations and feelings).
3
Q
Structuralism
A
Consciousness (or other complex mental phenomena) can be analyzed into a set of basic, constituting elements.
4
Q
William James
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Inspired the position later leading to Functionalism (as opposed to Structuralism). Defined psychology as “the science of mental life”.
5
Q
Functionalism
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The emphasis in psychology should be on the purpose and utility of behaviour, not structure.
6
Q
Structuralism vs. Functionalism
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Structuralism: the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related.
Functionalism: argues that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.
7
Q
John B Watson
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Shifted focus away from philosophy toward biology. Criticized introspection as based on private experiences, which are inaccessible to the investigator.
8
Q
Behaviourism
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Psychology must be purely objective. The goal of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour. There is not qualitative distinction between human and non-human behaviour.
9
Q
Gestaltpsychology
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Opposed the atomistic view of Structuralism. Like functionalists, they believed consciousness cannot be understood by these highly analytic methods.
10
Q
Phi Phenomenon
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Refers to an optical illusion of movement. Instead of two different and separate stimuli, we mistakenly perceive movement of the same stimulus.
11
Q
Gestalt principles
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Emergence, Multi stability, Reification, Invariance
12
Q
Figure-Ground Laws
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Law of Closure, Law of Similarity, Law of Proximity, Law of Continuity
13
Q
Psychophysiological Model
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A form of reductionism: attempt to explain human behaviour by recourse to its biological basis. Explores the relations between behaviour and processes and structures of the central nervous system.
14
Q
Assumptions of Psychophysiological Model
A
- Psychological phenomena can be explained in terms of physical and biochemical processes.
- General principle of reductionism applicable to human behaviour: complex phenomena can be sufficiently explained by reducing them to more elemental phenomena on more basic levels of analysis.
- Any form of behaviour is determined by physiological structures and partly inherited physiological processes.
- Experience can modify behaviour by changing the physical and biochemical structures and processes that underpin behaviour.
15
Q
Psychodynamic Model
A
All behaviour can be explained in terms of drivers or other intra-psychological forces. Human behaviour arises from (A) inherited, biologically inflexible drives and reflexes, and (B) the attempt to solve conflicts between the individual and society concerning the individual’s needs and wishes and society’s demands for socially adapted behaviour.
16
Q
Sigmund Freud
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Founded the first major movement in clinical psychology in modern history. His work focused on the unconscious, as the main motor of behaviour, as the seat of desires, wishes, drives.
17
Q
Fred proposed that our Psyche consists of what three elements
A
Id: Follows the pleasure principle (attempts to avoid pain and increase pleasure)
Superego: Morality, conscience, ideals, aspiration (your perfect self)
Ego: Reason and self-control, tries to mediate superego and id.
18
Q
Behaviourist Model
A
The overt and observable behaviour is the proper level of analysis. Humans are neither good nor evil, they just react to these conditions.
19
Q
Cognitive Model
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Assumes cognitions are the principal subject matter of psychology. Behaviour can be explained by analysis information processing.
20
Q
Humanistic Model
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Assumes that humans are neither motivated by strong deterministic biological drives nor environmental factors. Rather, they are active beings, naturally good and equipped with free will.
21
Q
Why do humans act aggressively? (Physiological Model)
A
Discover brain region involved in aggressive behaviour. Describe networks and signalling pathways involved in producing the behaviour. Or study brains of highly aggressive subjects.
22
Q
Why do humans act aggressively? (Psychodynamic Model)
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Aggressive actions are the result of frustrations. For example, poverty or unfair authoritative block access to means, this results in aggression.
23
Q
Why do humans act aggressively? (Behaviourism)
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To determine the cause of aggressive behaviour, one needs to identify reinforcers and antecedent conditions. For example, analyze what consequences had be aggressive behaviour in the past.
24
Q
Why do humans act aggressively? (Cognitive Model)
A
One would study the cognitions that go along with aggressive behaviour to analyze what information leads to it.
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Why do humans act aggressively? (Humanistic Model)
One wold explore what personal values and social conditions led the individual to engage aggressive behaviour, and not to engage in activities that would further personal growth.
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Dualism
Body and mind are of different quality, or composed of different elements (most prominent view in
Western and non-Western world)
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Cartesian Dualism
Mind and body are of different quality. Mind: non-physical, non-extended; Body: physical, extended.
28
Interaction problem
most philosophers and scientists believe that there is only one kind of reality. But what is the nature of that reality?
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Idealists (spiritual monists) on interaction problem
Mind is fundamental. Problem: why and how appears a consistent physical world?
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Neutral monists on the interaction problem
mental and physical are two different ways to represent the same reality, which is neutral (neither physical nor mental)
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Materialists on the interaction problem
matter is fundamental. the hard problem.
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What is the mind body problem
How are brain and min/consciousness related?
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What is the hard problem
Explain how physical processes in the brain give rise to subjective experience
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What are easy problems
perception, learning, memory, attention, sleeping vs waking
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Qualia
Philosophers use the term "qualia" to refer to the introspectively accessible, phenomenal, private aspects of our mental lives. Heart of the mind-body problem.
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Panpsychism
View that consciousness is potentially everywhere. Wherever there is life, there is consciousness.
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Levels of consciousness
Levels of alertness or responsiveness are correlated with patterns of electrical activity in the brain (brain waves) recorded by an electroencephalograph (EEG).
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Consciousness wide-awake
the pattern of brain waives consist of rapid irregular waves of low amplitude voltage (irregular alpha and beta waves)
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Consciousness during sleep
when consciousness seems to be minimal, the brain waves are much slower and of greater amplitude, often coming in periodic bursts of slow waxing and awning amplitudes
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Gamma brain waves
Heightened perception, learning, problem-solving tasks, REM sleep
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Beta brain waves
Alert, normal alert consciousness, active thinking, REM sleep
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Alpha brain waves
Physically and mentally relaxed
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Theta brain waves
Creativity, insight, daydreams, reduced consciousness, NREM light sleep
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Delta brain waves
Slow wave/deep sleep, NREM and possibly also parts of REM
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Stage 1 of sleep
5-10 minutes/cycle. Transition from alpha waves to theta waves. Hypnagogic imagery (or hallucinations). Myoclonic jerks.
46
Stage 2 of sleep
10-30 minutes/cycle. Sleep spindles and K-complexes. As much as 65 percent of total sleep.
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Stages 3 and 4 of sleep
15-30 minutes/cycle. Delta waves (slow wave sleep). Crucial to feel rested; suppressed by alcohol. 40% of sleep in children; 25% in adults.
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Stage 5 of sleep
10-20 minutes/cycle. REM sleep. Brain activity similar to wakefulness. Becomes longer as the night goes on. Many vivid dreams occur.
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Circadian Rhythm
Cyclical changes that occur on roughly a 24-hour basis. Regulated by neurons in the hypothalamus, which triggers our sense of fatigue via increasing melatonin.
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
The nucleus in the hypothalamus most critical for circadian rhythm.
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Reductionism
It is useful to consider a simple explanation because very complex behaviour can arise from a small set of simple principles. The most simple explanations are easier to falsify or to test.
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Reverse Reductionism
A problem for reductionism is emergent behaviour: complex dynamic systems can be described by simple linear functions, but the arising behaviour may be unpredictable.
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Rationalism approach to psychology
For the most part, psychological questions were framed and pursued within the framework of rationalism. Argues that observation not only is unnecessary, but potentially misleading.
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Empiricism
Hypotheses and theories about the nature of mind need to be confirmed or disconfirmed by observation.
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Inductivism (empirical method)
Several observations are used to induce theories, which are used to deduce hypothesis, leading to more observations, eventually to arrive at laws.
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Falsificationism
Tests are designed to refute the predictions, not to confirm a theory. Theories allow for an infinite number of predictions. But if one prediction if falsified, then theory is wrong.
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Hypothesis vs Prediction definitions
Hypothesis: Explanation of a phenomenon
Prediction: Event that will occur if phenomenon is true
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What does a Hypothesis do vs. a Prediction
Hypothesis: Explains why something happens
Prediction: Forecasts future event
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How is a Hypothesis written vs. a Prediction
Hypothesis: Statement with variables
Prediction: If, then statement
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Observations in the Scientific Method
Our observations are not objective, they are subjective
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Problems of Objectivity
1. Doing science is a human behaviour (psychologists are often part of what they observe).
2. All science is a social activity
3. There might not be a "pure" science, and neither a purely "subjective" science.
61
Constructivism: The Kuhn Cycle of Revolutions - Part 1
All new fields begin in Pre-Science (have begun to focus on a problem area but are not yet capable of solving it or making major advances) --> Eventually, field begins to make major progress, and field gets put in the Normal Science step (tends to stay longer than any other step) --> Over time, field digs so deep that it discovers new questions that its current model of understanding cannot answer, model will grow weaker, this is the Model Drift Step.
61
Two basic assumptions underlying experimental approach in psychology
1. Researchers only influence the participant's behaviour to the extent that they decide what hypothesis to test, how the variables are to be operationalized, what design to use, etc.
2. The only factors influencing the behaviour of participants are the objectively defined variables manipulated by the experimenter.
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Constructivism: The Kuhn Cycle of Revolutions - Part 2
--> if enough anomalies appear and the model cannot be patched up to explain them, the Model Crisis step is reached. --> Finally out of the struggle to form a new model of understanding one or more viable models emerge, this begins the Model Revolution step. --> Once a single new paradigm is settled on by a few influential supporters, the Paradigm Change step begins.
--> Eventually the old paradigm is sufficiently replaced and becomes the field's new Normal Science. The cycle then begins all over again, because our knowledge of the world is never complete.
62
Hawthorne effect (Hypothesis, Research Method, Results, Conclusion)
Hypothesis: Being observed can lead participants to change their behaviour.
Research Method: 1. During studies of the effects of workplace conditions, the researchers manipulated several independent variables, such as levels of lighting, pay incentives, and break schedules. 2. The researchers then measured the dependent variable, the speed at which workers did their jobs.
Results: The workers' productivity increased when they were being observed, regardless of changes to their working conditions. Conclusion: Being observed can lead participants to change their behaviour because people often act in particular ways to make positive impressions.
62
Drawbacks of Laboratory Research
Usually unfolds inside research laboratories located at research institutes and university departments. Participants are subjected to often bizarre tasks. Often these tasks are the result of a reductionist approach. One solution are field studies.
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What participants do to please the experimenter
The person being studied is not only a passive responder, but might engage in the experiment actively. This can lead participants to respond in a way to confirm the assumed hypothesis, in order to please the experimenter.
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Correlational Research
Explore how variables are naturally related, describing and predicting relationships between the variables. Cannot detect causal relationships between the variables. Allow making predictions, and these predictions can be tested in controlled experiments to search for causal relationships.
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Positive correlation
Both variables move in the same direction
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Negative correlation
Variables have an inverse relationship, and move in different directions.
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Zero correlation
The variables are not predictably related
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Directionality problem
The direction of the relationship between variables can appear ambiguous. Causations cannot be determined, therefore it remains unclear whether a positive or negative correlation results.
68
Third Variable Problem
The relationship between the two measured correlated variables might be dependent on a third, not measured, variable.
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Empirical Method
A way to detect and establish cause and effect relationships.
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Experiment definition
A research method that tests causal hypothesis by manpulating and measuring variables
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Independent variables
The manipulated variables
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Dependent variables
the variables to measure the effect of the manipulations
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Experimental group
Participants who receive a treatment.
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Control group
Participants who receive no treatment or who receive a treatment that is unrelated to the independent variable being investigated.
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Between Subjects Design
A separate group of participants (ideally equal in size) is assigned to each of the different conditions by random selection.
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Advantages of between subjects designs
Each participant only subjects to one treatment condition. The obtained DV measure is therefore less influenced by (a) practice/experience effects; (b) fatigue/boredom of participants; (c) sequence effects.
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Disadvantages of between subjects design
(a) relatively large number of participants needed; (b) measurements are obtained from different participants, inducing variance due to their different characteristics
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Within Subjects Design
All participants exposed to all treatment conditions. Therefore, the experimental groups are equivalent with respect to their experience, which increases the study's internal validity.
79
Advantages of within subjects designs
(a) fewer participants are needed than in. corresponding between-subjects design; (b) reduces measurement errors because individual differences because individual differences between groups of subjects are eliminated
80
Disadvantages of within subjects designs
repeatedly measuring the same subjects may promote (a) progressive error, because performance changes between treatment conditions are in addition to treatment influenced by the experience of participating in an experiment; (b) carryover effects, treatment in a particular condition might change participants such that it affects performance in a later condition.
81
Establishing Causality
In order to allow causal inferences, experiments depend on rigorous control.
82
Control
All steps taken by the experimenter to minimize the possibility that other variables besides the IVs influence the DV.
83
Confound
Anything that affects a DV and that varies unintentionally between the IV levels.
84
External validity
The degree to which a result obtained in an experiment can be generalized to other situations/contexts.
85
Internal validity
Refers to the quality of an experiment. Whether the observed effects measured with the DV are due to the independent variables and not to the confounds or other uncontrolled factors.
86
Logical empiricism
assumed that science can rest on a secure base of pure, objective empirical observations that are independent of the observer and of theory: what truly exists can actually and accurately be discovered by human observation.
87
Skewed to left
Negatively skewed. Means distribution has longer tail to the left.
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Skewed to right
Positively skewed. Longer tail to the right.
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Normally distributed
Symmetrical.
90
Mode
Value that occurs most often in. a dataset. In a frequency distribution, this is the category with the highest frequency.
91
Median
The data point in a dataset for which half of all data points are higher in value, and half of all data are lower in value.
92
Mean
Average value of a set of data.
93
Which central tendency measure is best to use in a skewed distribution
In a skewed distribution, mode, median, and mean are different. It is best to use the median to characterize the central tendency.
94
Variability
How much the data points in a data set vary from each other and from the mean. How wide the scores are spread out in the distribution. Effects how well the measure of central tendency describes the distribution.
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Standard deviation
A measure of the amount of variability in a data set. Average distance of the data points from the mean.
96
Statistically significant
If the group difference in the DV are sufficiently bigger than what we would expect simply by change.
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Null Hypothesis (H0)
There are actually, "in reality" no differences between the groups. The observed differences are simply due to change.
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Experimental hypothesis (H1)
There are actual, true differences between the groups. They are due to manipulating the IV.
99
Nativism
Knowledge of the world is mostly innate, and determines certain abilities. Associated with the idea that nature determines behaviour.
100
Empiricism
At birth mind is tabula rasa (empty slate), nothing in terms of behaviour and knowledge is inherited, all is learned. Associated with the idea that nurture (environment) determines behaviour.
101
Species
animals that tend to mate and produce fertile offspring
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Genus
species that evolved from common ancestor
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Mitochondrial DNA inherited from who
Mother
104
Most recent addition to hominid family tree
Denisovan
105
Four phases of human evolution
1. Cognitive Revolution
2. Agricultural Revolution
3. Scientific Revolution
4. Industrial Revolution
106
Cognitive Revolution
Arose in the basis of a drastic increase in brain size.
107
Possible consequences of increases in brain development affecting our mind/behaviour (cognitive revolution)
1. We spent more time looking for food to provide energy for brain
2. Muscle atrophy to help feed energy needs of brain
3. Human premature birth due to bigger brain of newborn and smaller pelvis of mother
4. Cooking, which increases nutritional density of food and dramatically improves digestion speed
5. A very special language
6. Possible friendliness
108
Agricultural Revolution: Domestication
For 100k years hominids depended on hunting and gathering for survival. But about 12k years ago agriculture emerged, animals were domesticated.
109
Consequences of agricultural lifestyle
1. Concept of ownership
2. Instead of kinship tribal bands, villages and cities and nations became default social structures
3. Settled humans have reduced knowledge about the wide surroundings
4. Sedentary lifestyle due to spending significant more time on working for food compared to hunter and gatherers.
110
Phylogenetically preserved behaviours - baby schema
certain facial characteristics have a high appeal to humans, inducing perception of "cuteness", eliciting caretaking behaviour.
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Phylogenetically preserved behaviours - Piloerection
Hairs "stand up" as a reaction to fright, cold. Inherited from our ancestors who had fur. Makes us look bigger and scarier. Also helps keep air around skin, insulating us from cold.
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Interactionism
Certain basic abilities and knowledge is innate, but can be influenced by experience, which in turn can change what innate behaviours are expressed, which influences what will be experienced, and so on.
113
Piaget's theory of human development
Assimilation --> Equilibration --> New Situation --> Disequilibrium --> Accommodation --> repeat
114
How many chromosomes do cells in human body contain
46 (23 pairs; diploid set). Female egg and male sperm contain only 23 (one half of each pair; haploid set)
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Genotype
The complete set of an organism's genes
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Genotype
The overt characteristics of an organism. The product of genotype and environmental factors, and experience.
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Alleles
Different forms of the same gene. We inherit the genes coding for the same features once from our mother and once from our father.
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Homozygous
The alleles code for the same phenotype
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Heterozygous
The alleles code for different phenotypes. The expressed phenotype reflects the coding in the dominant gene. The recessive gene is usually not expressed.
120
Histones
DNA is packaged around histones. Histones need to unwrap tp allow DNA to be accessible. Histones are critical for regulating gene expression.
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Epigenetic mechanisms
Processes that change gene expression, and operate on the level of the histones.
122
Proximate causes
Related to internal changes in an animal, such as hormones, learning, experience. Explains "how" an animal produces a behaviour (a goal of reductionism).
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Ultimate causes
Relates to the evolutionary causes of behaviour. Explains "why" an animal behaves as it does.
124
Natural Selection
Those organisms best adapted to their environment have a better chance of surviving and reproducing.
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Factors involved in Darwin's theory of evolution
Rapid multiplication, limited environmental resources, struggle for existence, variation/mutation, survival of the fittest, inheritance of the useful variation formation of new species.
126
Crying - innate behaviour
A form of primal communication, but it is highly effective at achieving outcomes. The sound of crying activates the amygdala and promotes a fear response.
127
Prokaryotic cells
According to the fossil record, the first cellular life forms were unicellular prokaryotic cells. They had no membrane-bound organelles, and had no nucleus. They have thus none of the basic features of plant or animal cells.
128
Eukaryotic cells
Found in plants and animals. Contain specialized organelles, some of them surrounded by. membrane.
129
Theory of symbiogenesis
Introduces evolutionary processes to explain the origin of species in addition to random mutation and natural selection. Proposes that eukaryotic cells arose from symbiosis of singly living prokaryotic life forms.
130
Evolutionary psychology
Study our commonalities, such as personality, emotion, sexual behaviour, reasoning, and trace these to the processes of evolution, especially the process of natural selection. Relies on a survival of the fittest model, ignoring the role cooperative processes have played in evolution.
131
Problems of evolutionary psychology
Modularity: plasticity in brain during and after development hard to reconcile with modularity claim.
Confirmatory testing: evolutionary psychologists produce little research that allows to fairly test the influence of environmental factors and genetic factors.
Simple genetic model: If a trait exists, it does because it increased fitness. Thus, every behaviour humans express must have produced increased fitness.
132
Focus on human prototype behaviour of sexual strategies from the Pleistocene Age may not be warranted because
Our ancestors probably did not have a wide range of partners to choose from. Evidence suggests that what may have evolved is mate selection based on similarity and proximity. Infidelity in small groups unlikely adaptive strategy.
133
Darwinian theory of evolution
Argues that natural selection, operating on the phenotype, increases the presence of organisms with traits that increase their reproductive fitness. Traits can emerge by mutation.
