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Bcsc 260 > midterm 1 > Flashcards

midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

adaptation

A

a trait that is heritable, is common in a population, and emerged due to evolutionary pressure

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2
Q

auditory cheesecake

A

the idea that music combines functions that are adaptive in themselves, but that the combination of these functions as music is not an adaptation

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3
Q

Darwin

A

said that music is a human universal, present “in men of all races, even the most savage”; believed early vocal communication was more similar to song than to modern speech (“proto-language”); argued for sexual selection (music used to attract mates, shows physical fitness, and may ward off competitors)

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4
Q

arguments for natural selection

A

promoting emotional conjoinment, nurturing social bonds, enhancing cognitive and social skills in infancy, training coordinated movement

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5
Q

emotional conjoinment

A

one argument for natural selection; music as a connection between infants and caregivers

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6
Q

exaptation

A

something whose current adaptive purpose is different from its original one

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7
Q

HMMMM

A

Mithen’s hypothesis (exaptation) describes musilanguage; holistic (utterances carry meaning as a whole), manipulative (emotional states and behavior), multimodal (sound and movement), musical (rhythmic and melodic features), mimetic (messages imitate or resembled things they referred to)

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8
Q

holistic utterance

A

meaning carried by a whole message; not separable words

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9
Q

McDermott & Hauser

A

argued against Pinker that some musical abilities may have been associated with music, right from the start (were not originally made for purposes other than music); made an experiment where sounds were played on opposite sides of a room; concluded that human consonance preference qualifies as an adaptation

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10
Q

musilanguage

A

a precursor to both language and music (Steven Brown); (stage 1) characterized by lexical tone (higher pitch refers to spatial location or higher emotion; determines the meaning of a word), (stage 2) the particulate principle added (simple elements combine to form complex structures)

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11
Q

natural selection

A

favors traits that promote survival

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12
Q

Pinker

A

believed that some components of music have adaptive value, but that music as a whole does not; argued for “auditory cheesecake”

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13
Q

prosody

A

patterns of rhythm and sound

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14
Q

sexual selection

A

favors traits that promote reproduction

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15
Q

vocal grooming

A

one argument for natural selection; music as nurturing social bonds; where a single vocalizer “services” multiple listeners

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16
Q

ANOVA

A

analysis of variance; compares two or more means; can be used with multiple independent variables; looks for main effects and interactions

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17
Q

between- vs within-subjects design

A

between: two (or more) groups of subjects with the same task
within: one group of subjects exposed to every treatment or condition

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18
Q

confound

A

an uncontrolled variable

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19
Q

correlation

A

shows relationship between two continuous variables x and y (coefficient r is between -1 and 1); does not imply causation

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20
Q

dependent vs independent variable

A

dependent: quantitative measure
independent: our manipulation/factors

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21
Q

ecological validity

A

“real world” stimuli/situations (i.e., real musical experience)

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22
Q

null hypothesis

A

there is no relationship in the population (and anything we observe in our sample only arises by chance)

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23
Q

t-test

A

compares two means (degrees of freedom df = N-1); reject the null hypothesis when p < .05 (p = probability of results due to chance)

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24
Q

nominal vs ordinal vs continuous variables

A

nominal: category data; differentiated by name, not magnitude (i.e., gender, instruments)
ordinal: data with rank ordering (i.e., untrained, amateur, professional)
continuous: measurement on continuum (i.e., time, distance, speed, % correct)

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25
absolute pitch (AP)
the ability to identify the musical name of a specific tone, or, conversely, to produce some musical pitch without comparing the note with any objective reference tone
26
amplitude/intensity
wave height; corresponds to a sound's loudness
27
beats
heard at frequency equal to the difference between them; perceived when two frequencies are close together (dissonant sounds, within the critical band)
28
critical band
range of frequencies in which dissonant interactions occur (basilar membrane); property of the basilar membrane rather than a physical structure
29
critical period
(as in language learning) the optimal time in development to acquire language
30
chroma
one basic cognitive dimension of pitch; aka pitch-class
31
compression vs rarefaction
compression: the upper peak of pressure (compression-rarefaction cycle) rarefaction: the lower peak of pressure (compression-rarefaction cycle)
32
decibels (dB)
measures intensity (amplitude squared); log scale; 0 is the threshold of hearing; 120 is the pain threshold
33
low- vs high-pass filter
low-pass: lower frequencies let through (i.e., bass) high-pass: higher frequencies let through (i.e., vocals)
34
Fletcher-Munson curves
equal-loudness curves; to create a sensation of equal loudness, higher intensity is required at extreme (high or low) frequencies
35
Fourier analysis
helps us analyze a wave; breaks a wave down into sine-wave components
36
frequency
measurement of the number of cycles of a periodic wave that pass a point per unit of time; determines a sound's pitch
37
fundamental
a combination of sine waves sounding simultaneously
38
Hertz (Hz)
cycles per second (x Hz = 1/x seconds)
39
Levitin
tested musicians and non-musicians; chose CDs containing familiar songs and asked participants to sing; over half of the participants sang within one semitone of the correct key
40
missing fundamental
when a tone with all of the partials except the fundamental sounds, but the fundamental is still heard
41
overtone/harmonic/partial
multiples of the fundamental (together create a complex tone)
42
period
the amount of time for one cycle (x Hz = 1/x seconds)
43
pitch helix
looks like a corkscrew; depicts musical pitch as varying along pitch height and pitch-class
44
pitch height
one basic cognitive dimension of pitch; from low to high
45
relative pitch (RP)
understanding pitches in relation to context (intervals to surrounding pitches, or position in scale)
46
Schellenberg & Trehub
found that memory of music from popular culture is acquired from implicit learning and is surprisingly precise (see notes for experiment)
47
Schellenberg, Iverson, & McKinnon
explored the hypothesis that absolute features of a stimulus (especially timbre) may be useful in song identification; took sounds from popular songs and tested college psychology undergraduates (between-subject design); used a pretest to make sure participants were familiar with songs then played short clips and had them guess which song it was; participants scored above chance in the 200 millisecond, 100 millisecond, and 100 millisecond high-pass conditions (not in 100 millisecond low-pass or 100 millisecond backwards)
48
sensory consonance vs dissonance
consonance: an aspect of acoustics and the auditory system; sounds "go together," create a "smooth" effect dissonance: an aspect of acoustics and the auditory system; created when the overtones of two fundamentals are close together (even if the fundamentals are far apart); two tones close together (within the "critical band") cause physical interference between their regions on the basilar membrane, which results in beating; sounds clash, create a rough effect
49
Shepard tone
a sound with only pitch-class (no pitch height); multiple octaves; Bell-shaped amplitude shape (filter)
50
sine tone
a wave of a particular shape; has three properties (frequency, amplitude, phase)
51
spectrum
partials of different amplitudes
52
spectrogram
shows multiple partials from multiple notes; shows time (x) against frequency (y)
53
timbre
tone color; depends on spectral (partials/overtones/frequencies present in the note) and temporal (the way the partials change in amplitude/volume over time)
54
two-component theory (AP)
pitch memory (many people have this) and pitch labeling ("AP" listeners have it)
55
auditory limits on pitch perception
20 to 20,000 Hz
56
sound process
tympanic membrane: eardrum; transforms air pressure vibrations to mechanical motion ossicles: malleus/incus/stapes --> hammer/anvil/stirrup; amplify vibrations and transfer them to the oval window (which then transfers the wave to the cochlea) cochlea: the snail-shaped structure that converts the mechanical energy from the stapes to electrochemical energy via the basilar membrane; filled with fluid basilar membrane: separates a sound into frequency components (fundamental and overtones) and sends separate signals to the brain for each component (the strongest frequency component determines the pitch we hear) auditory nerve: triggered by hair cells in the Organ of Corti; sends impulses to the auditory cortex in the brain
57
cochlear implant
a surgically implanted electronic device that helps people with an impaired middle or inner ear; the auditory nerve must be intact for this to work; external microphone behind the ear, a sound/speech processor that analyzes the sound and splits it into frequency bands, and a transmitter; internal receiver/stimulator and electrode array inside of the cochlea (stimulates the auditory nerve)
58
tonotopic mapping
the cochlea is organized from low to high pitch; sound waves at particular frequencies excite the basilar membrane at particular regions; high tones are at the base; low tones are at the apex
59
auditory scene analysis
organizing auditory input by using knowledge of how sounds are generated in the environment; simultaneous integration (grouping partials into notes); sequential integration (grouping notes together --> good continuation, similarity, proximity)
60
Bregman
that we use "auditory scene analysis" (evolutionary perspective); two principles --> (1) simultaneous sounds (partials) from the same source will start and stop at the same time and change in similar ways, (2) sounds of a sequence usually change gradually and not suddenly when they come from a single source
61
Gestalt principles
proximity: really important in music; when pitches are close together, we group them together similarity: timbre and spatial location good continuation: i.e., when a note is briefly replaced by another but it sounds like it continues through the stop
62
contour
the ups and downs (melody)
63
interleaved melodies
when notes of one melody alternate with notes of another

Bcsc 260 (3 decks)

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