Midterm 1,2,3, &17 Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Cells
A
living things that create energy
2
Q
Levels of biological organization
A
Atom + Molecule, Cell, Tissue, organ, organ systems
3
Q
two types of cells
A
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic which contain DNA and plasma membrane
4
Q
Prokaryotic
A
simple, no organelles
5
Q
Eukaryotic
A
complex, has organelle and nucleus
6
Q
Element
A
a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances
7
Q
Essential Elements
A
Carbon (c), Oxygen (o), Hydrogen (h), Nitrogen (n) which makes up 96% of 22.2% essential natural elements
8
Q
Remaining 4% of essential natural elements
A
Phosphorus (p), Sulfur (s), Calcium (ca), Potassium (k)
9
Q
Trace elements
A
Required in minute qualities, Iron (fe) - Carries oxygen
Iodine (I) Thyroid gland essential ingredient to make hormones
10
Q
Metabolism
A
Energy is utilized in chemical reactions called metabolism
11
Q
Homeostasis
A
regulate cells to maintain stable internal conditions
12
Q
Nucleus
A
contains dna
13
Q
Subatomic particles
A
parts composing an atom
14
Q
Element defiency
A
could lead to disease in both plants and animals
15
Q
3 main subatomic particles
A
Neutrons, Protons, and Electrons
16
Q
Electric charges
A
Only protons and electrons are electrically charged
17
Q
Protons
A
One unit of positive charge
18
Q
Electron
A
One unit of negative charge
19
Q
Atomic number
A
Number of protons in an element, written as the subscript to the left of an element
20
Q
Atomic mass
A
Mass of protons + mass of neutrons
21
Q
One dalton
A
One mass - mass number
22
Q
Isotopes
A
different atomic forms of an element, has the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
23
Q
Radioactive Isotopes applied
A
tracers of metabolism, monitor cellular function and processes such as cell division and mitosis
24
Q
Chemical bonds
A
Atom attractions that combine to form and hold together molecules and ionic compounds
25
Covalent bond
the sharing of electrons by two atoms, strongest bond in nature
26
Weak chemical bonds
Most important macromolecules are held in their functional forms by weak bonds
27
Weak bonds are
Ionic and Hydrogen bonds
28
Ionic bonds
charged molecules are ions, occurs between oppositely charged ions
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Hydrogen bonds
Formed when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is attracted to another one of its kind
30
Electronegative atom
oxygen and nitrogen
31
Water
Polar molecule held together by hydrogen
32
Acid
Substance that donates hydrogen while dissolving in water
33
Base
substance that reduces the concentation of hydrogen directly or indirectly in a solution. accept hydrogen ions
34
# what do these do?
Acids
proton donors
35
Buffer solution
solution with minimal changes of H+ and OH- concentrates, minimizes ph changes
36
Macromolecules
DNA and Carbohydrates
37
The four large molecules in cells
Carbohydrates, Lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
38
Types of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides
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Carbohydrates
| participate in..
energy storage and provide structural support
40
Monosaccharides
main fuel that cells use for cellular work
41
Disaccharides
double sugar, constructed from two monosaccharides and are joined through a dehydration reaction
42
Types of disaccharides
Lactose and Sucrose
43
# what are
Polysaccharides
Complex carbohydrates and long chains of sugar
44
Cellulose
Structural support, most abundant organic compound on earth. Dietary fiber.
45
Glycogen
Stores energy
46
Lipids
insoluble in water
47
Triglycerides
energy storing molecules
48
Phosolipids
Cell membranes, structural components of cells, one side is soluble and the other is insoluble in water
49
Steroids
Carbon based ring structures
50
Cholesterol
Used in making estrogen and testosterone, base steroids
51
LDL
bad cholesterol, can lead to heart disease
52
HDL
good cholesterol recycled by liver
53
Amino acids
| consist of
central carbon atom bonded to four covalent partners
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Secondary amino structure
Alpha, helix, and beta sheet
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Tertiary sequence
describes 3 dimensional shape created by disulfide and hydrogen bonds. creates polar and nonplar areas in molecules
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Quartinay sequence
describes proteins in which two or more tietary protein chains are associted
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Enzymatic catalysis
boosts chemical reaction
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Himoglobins
transport 02 in red blood cells
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Myoglobin
transports 02 in muscles
60
Ferritin
Iron stored in liver
61
Enzyme Function
dependent on the temperature of reaction medium, ph levels, ion concentration and precence of inhibitors
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Nucleic acid functions
Store genetic information, provides info used in making proteins
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Nucleic acid structure
nucleotides consist of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base
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DNA
Double helix : 2 associated strands of nucleic acid : Contains Deoxyribose
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DNA nitrogenous bases
Adenine - Thymine, Cytosine - Guanine
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RNA
SIngle stranded nucleic acid : passes along genetic messages : contains ribose
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RNA nitrogenous bases
Adenine - Uracil, Cytosine - Guanine
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Polypeptide
long chain of amino acids that makes proteins
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polynucleotide
A polymer made up of many nucleotides covalently bonded together
70
Plasma membrane is made up of
phosolipids, cholesterol, protein and carbohydrates
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Nucleotides
Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of 4 DNA bases
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Prokaryotic DNA
one single chromosome to attached cell membrane
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Phosolipids
found in all cell membranes. have polar and nonpolar tail
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plasma membrane
A phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells
75
Protein in membranes
Assist other molecules to move in and out of the membrane
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Membrane transport
the movement of ions or molecules across the cell membrane
77
Passive transport (diffusion)
a process that requires no energy to move molecules down their concentration gradient (from high to low concentation)
78
Active transport
An energy-requiring process that moves material across the cell membrane against a concentration difference. (Facilitated transport)
79
Osmosis and Diffusion
two types of transport, moves water through semipermable membrane
80
Endocytosis
process in which cell takes material into the cell via infolding of the cell membrane
81
Exocytosis
process in which cells release large amounts of material
82
Tonicity
the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
83
Isotonic
when the concentration of two solutions is the same
84
hypotonic
having a lower concentration of solute than other solution, cell will swell and burst water
85
hypertonic
having a higher concentration of solute than other solution, cell can break (lysis)
86
Plastids (chloroplast)
Used for storage and making food (photosynthesis)
Only in plant cells and contains the color pigment
87
Passive transport happens as
DIffusion through lipid layer and through protein channels
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Amyloplast
unpigmented plastids that store startch grains. abundent in cells of stems
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Nucleus function
the command center of the cell that contains genetic material and chromosomes
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Nucleus structure
Bonded by double membrane and contains DNA
91
Ribosomes
used in protein assembly, free and membrane bound
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
the region of ER that is studded with ribosomes and engages in protein modification
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
The region of ER that doesn't have ribosomes attached to it, involved in synthesis and secretion of lipids
94
Golgi appartus
a system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
95
Vesicles
small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within the cell
96
Lysomes
contains digestive enzymes, removes foreign material and waste from the cell
97
Enzymes
break down macromolecules
98
Mitochondria
organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production, site of cellular respiration, has its own DNA, and contains ribosomes
99
Cytoskeleton
a network of fibers that hold the cell together, helps cells keep their shape, and aids in movement
100
Cilia and Flagella
used in cell structures for support and movement. Cilia moves back and forth, Flagella moves in a whip-like motion
101
Mitosis
part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides and DNA distributes
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Sequence of Mitosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase + cytokinesis
103
Mitosis passing on genes
before parent cell divides and duplicates its DNA (chromosomes), resulting in daughter cells that are genetically identical
104
Karyotope
orderly arrangement of chromosomes
105
Homologous chromosomes
matching pairs of chromosomes
106
Diploid organisms
Humans are diploid organisms, with 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell, or 46 chromosomes in total.
107
Haploid organisms
our gamates (germ line cells) are haploid, only has one set of chromosomes
108
Prophase in mitosis
Chromatin fibers condense
109
Metaphase in mitosis
Chromosomes align on the metaphase plate
110
Anaphase
separation of sister chromatids, movement of chromosomes towards opposite ends
111
Telophase + Cytokinesis
formation of two daughter nuclei in the cell, end of mitosis and beginning of division of cytoplasm
112
Meiosis
haploid daughter cells being produced in diploid organisms, main goal is 2 cell divisions and ends in 4
113
Crossing over
homologous chromosomes exchange genetic info. Occurs in meiosis (prophase I) but not in
normal mitosis
114
Interphase
What follows after Miosis 1 and Miosis 2, chromosome replication of two genetically identical chromosome sisters
115
Key roles of meiosis
Preparation to fertilization, reduction of number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
116
Sexual reproduction depends on
Meiosis: diploid + haploid stages
fertalization
117
Prophase 1 (miosis)
takes about 90% of the time that mitosis takes, chromosomes begin to condense, crossing over, breakdown of nuclear envolope
118
Metaphase 1
Pairs of homologous
chromosomes forming tetrads
aligning on the metaphase plate. attached to microtubules from one pole
119
Anaphase 1
Movement of chromosomes
towards opposite ends: homologous chromosomes (two sister chromatids) toward opposite pole
120
Telophase + Cytokineses in miosis
Each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of chromosomes, still composed of two sister chromatids. occur
simultaneaously
121
Prophase 2
Formation of spindle apparatus. Beginning of chromosome
movement toward the metaphase II plate
122
Metaphase 2
Chromosomes align on the
metaphase plate as in mitosis
123
Anaphase 2
The centromeres of each
chromosome finally separate and sister chromatids come apart - toward opposite
poles
124
Telophase 2 + Cytokinesis
Chromosomes begin decondensing, Cytokinesis
produces 4 daughter cells, each
with a haploid set of chromosomes and are
genetically distinct
125
Mitosis vs Meiosis
Meiosis reduces number of chromosome sets from
diploid to haploid
Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome set
126
Sex differences in meiosis
Males: 4 sperm produced from each meiotic division; all viable.
* Female: one egg produced fromeach meiotic division; meiosis II is not complete until fertilization.
127
Cell cycle regulation
control mechanisms that determine whether cells will divide, remain dormant, arrest, or undergo programmed cell death
128
Accidents in meiosis
The members of a chromosome pair fail to separate or Gametes with an incorrect number of chromosomes are
produced.
129
Examples of meiosis accidents
