Midterm 1 Flashcards
(36 cards)
Define biology, physiology, pathology, anatomy, cytology, histology, and microscopy.
Biology: study of living organisms
Physiology: study of structure or parts
Pathology: study of diseases or pathogens
Anatomy: structure or parts
Cytology: study of cells
Histology: study of tissues
Microscopy: studying with a microscope
Define autopsy, biopsy, benign, malignant, medial, lateral, proximal, and distal.
Biopsy: test on living tissue
Autopsy: test on dead tissue
Benign: good, harmless
Malignant: bad, harmful
Medial: towards the middle of the body
Lateral: towards the outside or sides of the body
Proximal: closer to the center of the body
Distal: closer to the ends of the body
Define metabolism and cell inclusions.
Metabolism: sum of all organelle functions of a eukaryotic cell
Cell Inclusions: non-living entities that assist organelles in their functions
Define homeostasis.
internal steady state, requiring water, salt, sugar, nutrients, and enzymes; controlled by hypothalamus, regulated by liver; humans fluctuate about norm on a daily basis (above norm is hyper-, below is hypo-)
Define number 3.
3 germ layers that form body structures; embryonic and epithelial; ectoderm (outside), mesoderm (middle), endoderm (inside)
Define interstitial fluid.
liquid between cells; every liquid in the body is modified interstitial fluid; “glues” or binds our cells; makes up 15% of our total weight
Define osmotic exchange.
exchange between cells, using interstitial fluid as a mediator; exchange good, get rid of bad
What are the three planes of the body?
Sagittal: separates right from left sides
Coronal, aka Frontal: separates anterior from interior; divides front and back
Transverse: separates superior from interior; divides top and bottom
What two cavities are there in the body? What are the advantages?
Anterior, aka Ventral (divided by diaphragm)
Posterior, aka Dorsal
allows for organogenesis (formation of organs) and complex organisms
What is in the ventral body cavity? The dorsal?
VENTRAL –> Thoracic: contains pleural cavity (lung), superior mediastinum, and pericardial within mediastinum (heart)
Abdominal: contains digestive viscera
Pelvic: contains bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
*abdominopelvic refers to the abdominal and pelvic cavities
DORSAL --\> Cranial cavity (brain) Vertebral cavity (spinal cord)
What is the scientific method?
six basic, universal step
- Define the problem; single concern; question form
- Collection of Data; facts, stats, observations, etc.
- Forming a Hypothesis; attempt to answer 1 based on data collected from 2; variable always stated
- Experimentation; tests you hypothesis; two steps (control and variable)
- Second Data Collection; measurements of changing variable
- Conclusion; in/validates hypothesis based on data collected in 5
*show correlation between problem/hypothesis/experiment
What is the anatomic position?
standing upright facing forward, feet aligned but seperated, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward and thumbs out
What are the four levels of organization? What are the four basic elements of living organisms? What are the next four in human beings?
- Cells; basic unit, countless types
- Tissues; made of cells, four types
- Organs; made of tissue
- System; made of organs
HONC; hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
KCaNaP; potassium, calcium, sodium, phosphorus
*KCaNa are basic salts
What are the three macromolecules?
visible to the naked eye
Proteins: 20 kinds of amino acids
Carbohydrates: saccharides of sugars or starches (mono- not sweet; di- slightly sweet, poly- very sweet)
Lipids: fatty acids, oils, glycerol
Define a prokaroyic and eukaryotic cell.
Pro-: primitive cells that lack a nucleus, organelles, or both (both means a true pro-cell); typically parasitic; eg. bacteria or blood cells
Eu-: true cells that exist in complex organisms and are independent because of metabolic capabilities; requires nucleus, cytoplasm with organelles, plasma membrane;
75% interstitial fluid, 20% protein, 3-6% salts (KCaNa); eg. skin cells or liver cells
Name all 12 organelles and their functions within a eukaryotic cell.
Ribosomes: produce proteins
Golgi Bodies, Golgi Apparatus: packages proteins together
Lysosomes: contain enzymes; act as the cell’s digestive system
Vacuoles: storage of water, food, or waste
Mitochondria: perform respiration; liberates ATP (liquid cell energy)
Cell Plasma Membrane: selectively allows materials to go in and out of the cell
Nuclear Membrane: controls passage in and out of the nucleus
Nucleus: controls all organelle functions with DNA
Nucleolus: assist in cell division
Chromatin Material, aka Plasmids: composed of unseen DNA and chromosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum: increases surface area of cell; rough and smooth
Centrioles, aka Centrosomes: function in cell division
What is passive transport? What are the three types of passive transport? What is active transport? What are the two types of active transport? What is the rate of molecular movement dependent on?
PT requires no energy.
- Simple diffusion: movement from a high to low concentration
- Facilitated diffusion: requires assistance to diffuse
- Osmosis: diffusion of liquid through SPM
AT requires energy (ATP) to transport molecules against a gradient or to be moved through the pores of SPM.
- Exocytosis: move out of the cell
- Endocytosis: take into the cell (phagocytosis for solids, pinocytosis for liquids)
- Temperature: higher temperature means higher energy
- Gradient: high to low concentration
- Size of molecules
- Pressure
What is toxicity? What are the three types of tonicity?
Tonicity is the solution/interstitial fluid in which a cell soaks.
- Hypertonic: more water in cell than out; transport goes in to out; can lead to plasmolysis or cytoplasm destruction
- Hypotonic: more water out of cell than in; transport goes out to in the cell; can cytolysis or cell destruction
- Isotonic: equal water concentration in and out of cell
What are the five steps of metabolism?
- Ingestion
- Catabolism; break down
- Transport, Energy Cycle; ATP (unstable, very reactive) changed into ADP when used; some energy is lost due to heat, active transport, or the union of amino acids chains
- Anabolism; build up
- Proteins and Waste formed; excretion for liquids, egestion for solids
Define respiration. What are the two types of respiration?
Respiration, in general, is the liberation of ATP. There are two types: anaerobic and aerobic.
ANAERO: without oxygen; primitive, occurring 1% of the time; aka fermentation; yields 2 ATP per glycogen
if in plants: alcoholic fermentation (ethyl alcohol)
if in animals: lactic acid fermentation (oxygen debt if out of shape)
AERO: uses or requires oxygen; modern, occurring 99% of the time; aka oxidation; yields 38 ATP per glycogen
obligated: can only breath aerobically (eg. bacteria)
facilitated: aerobic but hybrid (eg. humans)
What is a nucleotide? Identify the nitrogen bases of DNA and RNA. How do the bonds go?
A nucleotide makes up the strands of DNA and RNA.
made up of a ribose sugar (R), a phosphate (P), and a nitrogen base (B)
Pentagon (B), Square (R), Bottom Square (P)
purines: adenine, guanine
pyrimidines: cytosine, thymine, uracil
In DNA: A x T, C x G
In RNA: A to U, T to A, C x G
Define DNA. Define RNA. What are four differences between DNA and RNA?
DNA: deoxyribose nucleic acid
carries your genes on lines on chromosomes; 23 pairs (22 autosome, controlling all traits but sexual; 1 sex chromosome, XX if girl and XY if boy)
has triple codons of nitrogenous bases, linked by weak hydrogen bonds
double helix model from Watson/Crick
RNA: three forms: mRNA (messenger), rRNA (ribosome), tRNA (transfer)
tRNA has anticodon prongs atop the RNA, with a corresponding amino acid attached at the bottom.
- double stranded vs. single stranded
- remains in nucleus vs. can leave nucleus
- no oxygen vs. oxygen
- template vs. carrier
Describe the steps of protein synthesis.
- Replication: copy of DNA carried as mRNA out of the nucleus
- Transcription: mRNA attaches to a ribosome, becoming rRNA; anticodons of tRNA attach to rRNA, creating an amino acid chain
- Translation: tRNA goes to the Golgi bodies and become either structural proteins (amino acids) or enzymes
What is the cell life cycle?
85% in resting phase, aka G phase; doing metabolic functios, but not reproducing
15% in active phase, aka S phase; doing reproduction or division; replaces aged cells; mitosis or meiosis
