Midterm 2 Flashcards
(38 cards)
Define osteology, basic unit, calcium, foramen, and foramina. What are the three areas of the human skeleton? What are the joints?
Osteology: study of the skeletal system; 200 + 6 bones (3 bones per ear that fall off after death)
Basic Unit: bone (as an organ) has osteocytis, or bone cells
Calcium: in all bones; oxidizes to a yellowish tint
Foramen: large opening; eg. bottom of skull
Foramina: smaller, closely joined openings used for ligaments, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves; eg. sacrem
–
*act as three branches to one system
- Axial: “axis” of the body; acts as framework and protection of vital organs; includes the skull (brain), vertebrae and backbones (spinal cord), ribs (lungs and heart)
- Appendicular: “appendages” that function in movement; include limbs and girdles (pectoral for shoulder, pelvic for hip)
- Articulations: “articulate” or connect the other branches; include joints
–
arthrology, study of joints; connect axial and appendicular portions of the body
Define ossification. What are the two types of ossification? What are sutures used for? What are the five types of sutures?
aka bone formation, or the process of bone hardening from cartilage; cartilage + blood (calcium) = bone
- Intramembranous: takes place immediately after birth; requires calcium to begin ossification over a quick period of three months; produces five types of sutures *exception: broken bones always rejoin in a serrated suture and will not re-break at that location
- Endochondral: occurs everywhere but the skull and over a long period of time (18-21 years); uses cartilage parts to allow for bone enlargement; bone grows from outside in; uses joints, not sutures to connect bone
–
act as a joint in the skull; should never move after being formed
- Serrate: jagged
- Lamboidal: looped
- Gomphosis: actual teeth within jaws
- Dentate: teeth-like
- Squamosal: flat, almost straight
Define condyle, periosteum, ephiphysis, diaphysis, matrix, and the medullary canal.
BONE ANATOMY
Condyle: smooth rounded end; ball in “ball and socket” joint
Epicondyle: two smaller rounded heads; traditional bone endings
Periosteum: bright, white wrap of fibers around living bone; provides all blood/nourishment and allows for osmotic exchange
Epiphysis: growth ends of bone; location of endochondrial ossification
Diaphysis: shaft of the bone
Matrix: soft, cancellous (spongy) bone; houses red bone marrow
Medullary Canal: tubular hollow within compact bone; houses yellow bone marrow and acts as a storage for calcium and other deposits
–
- spongy matrix (with red bone marrow)
- process
- compact bone
- blood vessel
- periosteum
- medullary canal (with yellow bone marrow)
- epiphysis (2)
- diaphysis
Define gingiva, crown, neck, root, maloclussion, pyrrhea, carie, oral, and buccal. What are dentitions? What are the two types of dentition?
Gingiva: gums
Crown: bone covered with enamel
Neck: naked bone; no enamel covering
Root: contains nerves
Maloclussion: bad or unaligned jaw; causes headaches
Pyrrhea: severe gingivitis caused by bacterial infestation
Carie: aka cavity; caused by bacteria that have eaten away at the enamel
Oral: opening or stoma
Buccal: includes everthing in mouth
–
aka teeth, or the gomphosis joint within jaws
Deciduous: aka temporary or baby teeth; are cartilagenous with no bone or nerves; only 16
Permanent: 32 total, 16 per jaw (mandible. maxilla); 2-1-2-3 pattern for 2 pair of incisors, 1 pair of canines (cuspids), 2 pairs of premolars (bicuspids), 3 pairs of molars (tricuspids)
What is the bafological curve? What are the divisions of the bafological curve?
aka backbone or natural curve of the body; crawling as a baby allows for such alighnment, which is essential for healthy organ growth and function
in-out-in-out for cervical (neck), thorax (chest), abdomen (lower back), and pelvis (hips)
–
all vertebraes are cushioned by dense cartilage, called invertebral disks
Cervical: C1-C7; characterized by dual lateral foramen to allow for blood vessels; allso has bifid split that aligns nerves
Thoracic: T1-T12; downward spinal process
Lumbar: L1-L5; large oval body ad hatchet shaped spinous process; heart shaped
Sacral: S1-S5; fused together through ossification, resulting in serrated sutures
Cocyx: typically comprised of 4 bones; aka tail bone; may lead to paralysis if damaged
What are the ribs and how is it characterized?
part of axial skeleton and protects lungs and heart
Sternum: comprised of three majors parts to form rib cage; head (manubrium), body (fundus), tail (xhyphoid process)
12 Paired Ribs: 7 true ribs (attached directly to sternum by ligaments/cartilage); 3 false ribs (attached to true ribs); 2 floating ribs (no attachment to sternum, but attached in the back to bafological curve)
AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR SKELETON
AXIAL
- cranium (skull)
- maxilla
- mandible
- sternum
- ribs
- vertebrae
- sacrum
APPENDICULAR
- clavicle
- scapula
- humerus
- ulna
- radius
- carpals
- phalanges
- metacarpals
- coxal bone
- femur
- patella
- tibia
- fibula
- tarsals
- metatarsals
- phalanges
PECTORAL GIRDLE
- clavicle (collar bone)
- scapula (shoulder blade)
- humerus (upper arm)
- ulna
- radius (larger epiphysis than ulna’s)
- carpals (wrist)
- metacarpals (hand)
- phalanges (finger)
PELVIC GIRDLE
- pubic symphysis
- femur (upper leg)
- patella (knee cap)
- tibia (larger epiphysis than fibula’s)
- fibula
- tarsals (ankle)
- metatarsals (foot)
- phalanges (toes)
PELVIC BONES
aka hip bones; comprised of ilium (yellow), ischium (red), and pubis (blue)
Symphysis Pubis: opening of pelvis; visiblein female childbirth
Acetabulum: pocket; coated with cartilage
SKULL BONES
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
- Zygomatic Arch
- Nasal
- Maxilla
- Mandible
What are the hand bones? How are joints classified? What are the two types of joints?
8 carpals (wrist), 5 metacarpals (hand), 14 phalanges (fingers)
thumb is known as “pollex” and made of two bones (proximal distal)
all other fingers have three bones (proximal, medial, distal)
–
by movement
SYNARTHROSIS: non-moving; eg. gomphosis joints, sutures
AMPHIARTHROSIS: slightly-moving; eg. back, symphosis pores
DIATHROSIS: free-moving; eg. arms, legs, hands
-
WITH CAVITY: filled with synovial fluid to absorb shock
WITHOUT CAVITY: has small pockets of liquid to cushion bone; aka bursae
Define myology, myoglobin, summation, fatigue, and dual function. What is the basic unit and fiber content of muscle? Define functional unit. What is the difference between a natural and unnatural twitch? What is ACH and ACH-esterase?
Myology: study of muscle
Myoglobin: blood-colored liquid protein
Summation: natural, continuous flow of ACH
Fatigue: lack of protein that causes a lack of ACH-esterase
Dual Function: of muscles; allows for movement and heat
Basic Unit: fibers
Fiber Content: 75% interstitial fluid; 20% protein; 3-6% basic salts (KNaCa)
–
Agonist: primary or first mover
Antagonist: opposite action to agonist
Synergistic: help muscle; helps antagonist
Specialist: one action only
*antagonistic movements (agonist-antagonist pairs) are superficial or visible
–
Natural Twitch: involuntary muscle contraction Unnatural
Twitch: aka tetanus; twitching caused by external stimulation
–
ACH: acetylcholine; nuerotransmitter that causes polarity change in muscles
ACH-esterase: repolarizes everything to equilibrium and requires protein
Explain the following theories: membrane, action potential, sodium potassium, all or none, sliding filament.
Membrane: more sodium ions on outside than potassium ions inside; positive outside membrane, negative inside
Action Potential: resting potential of -70 mV; threshold requires 70 mV to contract; subthreshold is any stimulus that is less than 70 mV
Sodium Potassium Pump: SPM keeps positive sodium ions out, negative potassium ions in; electrical impulse allows SPM to “open” and polarity change occurs
All or None: fibers contract all the way or not at all
Sliding Filament: takes place at myoneural junction; filaments become depolarizers and slide across one another to come together; change of polarity causes shortening of muscle
MUSCLE ULTRASTRUCTUE
- Process
- Tendon
- Fundus (body)
- Bundle
- Sarcolemma
- Fiber
- Myofibril
- Filament
MYOFIBRIL ULTRASTRUCTURE
- Dark Bands: aka A-bands; thick filament of myosin
- Light Bands: aka J-bands; thin filament made of actin
- Sarcomere: aka Z-bands; location of contraction
- H-zone: takes in impulses via end knob
NUEROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
- Dendrite
- Cell Body; Soma
- Axon
- Myelin Sheath
- Telodendrils
- End Knob
- Mitochondria
- Pre-Synaptic Vesicles (release ACH)
- Conductive Gel (for transmitting electrical impulses)
- Synapse
- Receptors
How are muscles named?
- By Geometric Shape or Form: Trapezius; Rhombus; Deltoid; Teres; Quadratus; Splenius
- Size and General Configuration: Latissimus (broad); Longus; Brevis (short); Vastus (thick); Maximus; Minimus
- Fiber Direction: Rectus (up, down); Transversus (superior, anterior); Oblique (cleft through the body)
- Origin and Insertion (attachements): sternocleidomastoid (sternum, clavicle, mastoid); brachioradialis (arm, radius); caracobrachialis (carcoid of scapula, arm)
- General Location: intercostal (ribs); brachialis (arms); pectoralis; tibialis; Iliacus (hips); Femoris; Subscapularis (scapula)
- Action or Function: Flexor; Extensor; Abductor (opens); Adductor (closes); Pronator (faces posteriorly or inward); Supinator (faces anterioirly or outwards); Levator (brings up); Depressor (brings down)
- Number of Heads or Origins: Biceps (two); Triceps (three); Quadriceps (four)
Name three antagonistic pairs and their functions.
- Biceps Brachii, bends arm at elbow // Triceps Brachii, extends arm at elbow
- Buccinator, draws mandible away from body // Masseter, brings mandible towards body
- Quadriceps Group, extends leg at knee // Hamstring Group, bends leg at knee
How do contractions and vibrations work with muscles? What are the types of innervation? What are the steps of muscle contraction?
Skeletal, Cardiac have contractions; Visceral, Smooth have peristalsis motions (vibrations or wave-like motions)
–
Innervation: origin of an electrical impulse involuntary
muscles innervate from the ANS (autonomic nervous system); voluntary muscles innervate from the CNS (central nervous system)
–
- ANS/CNS innervation of 70+ mV occurs
- Mitochondria react to stimulus
- ATP is released
- Presynaptic Vesicles react to ATP
- ACH (acetylcholine) is released
- ACH moves across the synaptic gap (synapse)
- Polarity change from rest (positive in, negative out) to contraction (positive out, negative in)
What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle? What is origin and insertion? Fast twitch and slow twitch?
attached to skeleton or bone with a process, tuberosity, or trochanter; only muscle with a tendon; voluntary and striated with protein bands; CNS innervation
–
Origin: closer or proximal to head; fixed or stationary
Insertion: farther or distal; moveable
Fast Twitch: quick contractions and fatigues; burst of energy or speed; developed first in the human body as barbies; “white meat” because of low amount of myoglobin
Slow Twitch: slow contractions and fatigue; endurance; “dark meat” because of high amount of myoglobin
*twitch ratio is genetically influenced
What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle? What are the characteristics of visceral muscle?
Cardiac: involuntary, striated; ANS innervation; has syncytium gaps formed by crossing over matrix; has autorhythmicity (each cell has its own beat)
Visceral: involuntary, unstriated; ANS innervation; moves through peristalsis; found in internal organs and blood vessels
What is nuerology? What are the types of neurons? What are convolutions and what are they made of?
study of the nervous system; brain as organ, nuerons as basic unit; divides into PNS, CNS, and ANS
–
amount of folds determine the intelligence or complexity of organisms
gyrus/gyri as top; sulcus/sulci as valley; cerebral spinal fluid found in sulci
–
- Unipolar: sensory; send; receptors of stimulus; afferent path; located in sensory organs
- Bipolar: motor; receive; typically efferent; located in glands or muscle
- Multipolar: mixed; interpret; located in CNS (brain interprets information that spinal cord receives)
Define MYELIN and all the components that are associated with it. Define MENINGES and all the components associated with it.
Myelin: coats axon; the thicker it is, the faster the impulse travels; found in PNS and CNS
Nuerolemma Covering: used for regeneration
Nodes of Ranvier: dimples or valleys along the surface
Saltation: aka saltatory conduction; jumping of one node to the next
Schwann Cells: glial or support cells that use mitochondria to produce ATP for fatigued neurons
–
similar to myelin sheath but unable to regenerate; found only in CNS; has three layers of dura mater (outer), arachnoid (middle), and pia mater (inner)
