Midterm 1 Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
Brain
A
- “tissue within the skull’
- produces & is affected by behavior
organ of soft nervous tissue that functions as coordinating centre of sensation & intellectual activity
2
Q
Behavior
A
obserable phenomenon produced by NS that has both a cause & function
3
Q
Behavior & Brain→ Nature vs. Nurture?
A
not reducible to being simply result of nature vs nurture
- affected by BOTH
- affect each other
- inextricably linked
4
Q
Perspectives on Brain & Behavior (3)
A
1) Mentalism
2) Dualism
3) Materialism
5
Q
1) Mentalism
* who?
A
Aristotle
- explanation of behavior as function of nonmaterial mind
- mind (“soul/psyche”) found in heart & departed from body after death
- brain cooled blood
6
Q
2) Dualism
- who?
- behavior produced by?
- location
A
Rene Descartes
- 2 entities (nonmaterial mind & material body) contribute to behavior
-
mind directs rational behavior (through brain)
- in pineal gland beside ventricles
- regulates behavior/movement by directing flow of ventricular fluid to muscles
-
body/brain direct all other behaviors via mechanical & physical principles
- sensation, movement digestion
-
mind directs rational behavior (through brain)
- influenced by mechanical devices of the time (hydraulics)
7
Q
Dualism - Problems with Descartes Theory (3)
A
1) Mind-Body Problem
2) Pineal gland involved in biological rhythms but NOT intelligence or behavioral control
3) fluid is NOT pumped from ventricles to control movement
8
Q
Mind-Body Problem
A
how does a non-material mind & physical brain/body interact?
9
Q
3) Materialism
* supporting evidence?
A
behavior explained as function of NS without explanatory recourse to mind
- EVIDENCE: case studies → people with brain damage indicate that brain controls behavior & produces mind
NO nonmaterial mind
- mind has physical basis → BRAIN
10
Q
Phineas Gage → significance?
A
story shows that changes to brain can change behavior
11
Q
Evolution of Evolution
- who?
A
Alfred Wallace & Charles Darwin struck by the many similarities (physical atrributes & behavior) among species
- questioned how species could be so different yet similar at the same time
- lead Darwin to propose his theory of Natural Selection
12
Q
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
- involves?
- how?
A
involves gradual change in frequency that a gene is expressed within a population
- occurs over many generations
- organisms with advantageous traits for given environment are able to survive & procreate
13
Q
Epigenetics
A
study of differences in gene expression related to environment & experience
14
Q
How are traits naturally selected?
A
source of variability (i.e. genetic mutation)
→ adaptive trait → ↑ chance of survival → trait passed on to offspring
15
Q
Implications of Natural Selection for study of brain/behavior (3)
A
1) Brain/neurons are related
2) behaviors are related
3) complexity in brain & behavior evolved gradually, in response to environmental demands & experience
16
Q
1) Brain/neurons are related
A
enables animal models for studying structures & functions
- because all animal species are related, so too must their brains
17
Q
2) behaviors are related
A
enables animal models for studying behaviors
- all species of animals are related, so too must their behavior
18
Q
Why study Brain & Behavior? (3)
A
1) how brain produces behavior is major unanswered scientific question
2) many behavioral disorders can be explained & potentially cured by understanding brain
3) brain = most complex living organ on Earth
19
Q
1) how brain produces behavior is major unanswered scientific question
A
study brain for purpose of understanding humanity
understanding brain function allows improvements in many aspects of our world (educational/economic/social systems)
20
Q
2) many behavioral disorders can be explained & potentially cured by understanding brain
A
2000+ disorders are related in some way to brain abnormalities
21
Q
Anterior
A
frontal
rostral
22
Q
Posterior
A
caudal
back
23
Q
Dorsal
A
superior
above
24
Q
Ventral
A
Inferior
below
25
Medial
middle
26
Lateral
side
27
**Dorsal** side
**spinal cord** vs. **brain**
**spinal cord:** back
* *think animal on all fours*
**brain:** top of head
28
(3) Planes
1) Horizontal
2) Sagittal
3) Coronal
29
1) Horizontal
aka **Axial/Transverse**
* divides body into **superior & inferior** parts
30
2) Sagittal
* **(2)** types
**vertical plane** passing from **anterior** to **posterior**, dividing body into **right** & **left** halves
a) **mid-sagittal:** sagittal plane through midline
b) **parasagittal:** any plane parallel to sagittal plane
31
3) Coronal Plane
any **vertical** plane that divides body into **dorsal** & **ventral** sections
32
****_Contra_**lateral** vs. ****_Ipsi_**lateral**
In reference to pathways within the body
* **Contra**lateral = situated on/coordinated with **opposite** side of body
* **Ispi**lateral = belonging to/occurring on **same** side of the body
33
Afferent vs. Efferent
**Afferent** = incoming info (sensory) into CNS
**Efferent** = outgoing info leaving CNS
34
NERVOUS SYSTEM
* **Afferent** nerves
**sensory** pathways
* nerve impulses conducting from receptors/sense organs **towards** CNS
* *dendrites* pick up sensory stimuli
35
NERVOUS SYSTEM
* **Efferent** nerves
**motor** pathways
* conduct nerve impulses **away** from CNS to effector organs
* *axons* receive impulse from cell body
36
Interneurons
* located in CNS
* connect **sensory** & **motor** neurons
* play role in **reflex arc**
* allow **quicker** responses without involving brain
37
Primary Functions of the Brain **(3)**
1) Create a **sensory reality**
2) **Store & integrate** information
3) Produce **behavioral** response *in response to information*
38
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN:
## Footnote
1) Create a sensory reality
* varies across **species**
* more acute/sensitive senses (i.e. dogs)
* varies across **individuals**
* i.e. rods/cones (color blind)
39
Nervous System
* made up of? (3)
* functions?
1) Brain
2) Spinal Cord
3) Nerves
* **recieves** information *(via nerves)*
* **interprets** information *(via brain)*
* **generates responses** to information *(through spinal cord to effector organs)*
40
Nervous System
* divided into **(2)** main parts
1) CNS
2) PNS
41
CNS
* functions?
* **(2)** parts
* **recieves**, **processes**, **interprets**, **stores** & **responds** to sensory information
1) **Brain**
2) **Spinal cord** - bridge b/w brain & peripheral nerves
42
2) Spinal Cord
* definition
collection of **neurons & supportive tissue** running from **base of brain** down **center of back**
* protected by **spinal column**
43
2) Spinal Cord
* injury
INJURY leads to **paralysis**
* Quadriplegia
* Paraplegia
44
Quadriplegia
**partial/total inability** to move all **four** limbs
* caused by **damage** to **cervical** spinal cord segments (C1-C6)
45
Paraplegia
partial/total **inability** to move lower limbs
* caused by damage to **thoracic, lumbar** or **sacral** region of spinal cord
46
2) Spinal Cord
* roles
* role in **voluntary** movement & **automatic** functions
* carries **sensory** info **to** brain
* carries **motor** commands **from** brain
* controls **_spinal reflex_**
47
Spinal Cord → **Spinal REFLEX**
**automatic** response to sensory information that is **independant** of brain
* **sensation** at side relayed to **neurons** in **spinal cord** via **sensory** pathway
* spinal cord **returns** signal along **motor** pathway causing "**reflex**"
* signal is also sent to **brain**, alerting it to **sensation** & **response**
48
Example of **Spinal Reflex**
* describe
**Patellar** Reflex
* **stimuli** (tap below knee) → **AP** in **muscle spindle** within quad
* travels to spinal cord via **sensory** neuron → Glu release @ synapse
* **motor** neuron **activated** → quadricep **contraction** (**extension**)
* **interneuron** activated → inhibitory Glycine release → inhibit antagonist muscles causes **hamstring relaxation**
* detect info, determines which muscle to contract & stimulates motor response (**coordinate** reflex)
49
**Interneuron** role in Spinal Reflexes
**integration** of **motor commands** & **sensory feedback signals** is used to control muscle activity during movement
* coordinate reflex
50
Spinal Cord **Regions** (5)
* Cervical (C1-C6)
* Thoracic (T1-T12)
* Lumbar (L1-L5)
* Sacral (S1-S5)
* Coccygeal
51
PNS
* functions
* divided into **(2)** main systems
* provides **information to** CNS
* provided with **response information from** CNS
1) Somatic NS
2) Autonomic NS
52
1) Somatic NS
consists of **spinal & cranial nerves**
* **sensory** info from **receptors** in **skin/muscles/joints/sense organs** recieved by **sensory** nerves & sent to **CNS**
* **motor** nerves carry messages from **CNS** to **skeletal** muscles to produce movement
53
Cranial Nerves
* **12** pairs
* monitored by **brain**
* **sensory**, **motor** or **mixed** (both)
* supply**:**
* **sense organs**
* **face & head** muscles
4 involved in **Parasympathetic** Division of ANS
* oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus
- *many are attached at brainstem region*
54
Cranial Nerves (12)
1. Olfactory
2. Optic
3. Oculomotor
4. Trochlear
5. Trigeminal
6. Abducens
7. Facial
8. Auditory Vestibular
9. Glossopharyngeal
10. Vagus
11. Spinal Accessory
12. Hypoglossal
55
Olfactory
1
smell
sensory
56
Optic
2
sensory
vision
57
Oculomotor
3
motor
eye movement
58
Trochlear
4
motor
eye movement
59
Trigeminal
5
mixed
**masticatory** movements & **facial sensations**
60
Abducens
6
Motor
eye movement
61
Facial
7
mixed
facial movement & sensation
62
Auditory Vestibular
8
sensory
**hearing & balance**
63
Glossopharyngeal
9
mixed
**tongue** & **pharynx** movement & sensation
64
Vagus
10
mixed
* sensory info about heart, BV, viscera
* movement of larynx & pharynx
65
Spinal Accessory
11
motor
neck muscles
66
Hypoglossal
12
motor
tongue muscles
67
Mnemonic to remember:
a) Cranial Nerves
b) sensory/motor/mixed
a) Oh Oh Oh Tiny Tits Are Fun And Give Virgins Awkward Hips
b) Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most
68
Spinal Nerves
monitored by **spinal cord**
* each contains both **sensory** & **motor** fibers
* supplies a single **dermatome**
69
DERMATOME
**region** of body that **corresponds** to **particular spinal nerve** that it is **innervated** by
area of **skin** supplied by a particular spinal nerve
70
Law of Bell & Magendie
**Sensory** fibers → **dorsal** side of spinal cord (→ CNS)
**Motor** fibers → **ventral** side of spinal cord (→ body)
71
**Spinal** Nerves
* **Ventral** vs. **Dorsal** Fibers
**Ventral** Fibers
* carry info from **spinal cord → muscles**
**Dorsal** Fibers
* carry info from **body → spinal cord**
72
PNS → **Autonomic** Nervous System
* regulates **glands**, **BV** & **internal** organs
* **internal** environment
* **involuntary**
* comprised of **(2)** independant systems:
* **Sympathetic** NS
* **Parasympathetic** NS
73
**Sympathetic** NS
* location
* functions
Innervates @ **thoracic & lumbar** level of spinal cord
→ **STIMULATORY**
**- arouses** body during times of **stress**
* **sexual** arousal
- **initiates** fight or flight response
74
ANS → **Parasympathetic** NS
→ **INHIBITORY**
* allows body to **rest & digest**
* **4 cranial** nerves & **spinal** nerves @ **sacral** level
* ocolumotor (III)
* facial (VII)
* glossopharyngeal (IX)
* vagus (X)
75
Parasympathetic Function of 4 Cranial Nerves involved in ANS
**Oculomotor** (III) → contracts pupils
**Facial** (VII) → salivation
**Glossopharyngeal** (IX) → salivation
**Vagus** (X) → slows heartbeat, constricts airways, digestion, stimulates bladder & erection
76
Effect of **Sympathetic** NS on...
1) pupils
2) salivation
3) airways
4) heartbeat
5) digestion
6) glucose release
7) bladder
8) genitals
1) dilates
2) inhibits ↓
3) relaxes
4) accelerates ↑
5) inhibits ↓
6) stimulates ↑
7) contracts
8) stimulates **ejaculation**
77
Effect of **Parasympathetic** NS on...
1) pupils
2) salivation
3) airways
4) heartbeat
5) digestion
6) glucose release
7) bladder
8) genitals
1) contracts
2) stimulates
3) constricts
4) slows ↓
5) stimulates ↑
6) ↓
7) stimulates ↑
8) stimulates **erection**
78
Brain
* **Surface Features**
**Meninges** - tough triple-layered protective covering
* **dura mater**
* **arachnoid layer**
→**subarachnoid** space (filled with CSF)
* **pia mater**
79
Meninges
## Footnote
**(1) Dura Mater**
"hard mother"
- **tough double** layer of **fibrous** tissue **enclosing brain & spinal cord** in **loose sac**
80
Meninges
## Footnote
**(2) Arachnoid Layer**
**thin sheet of delicate CT**
**web-like fibers** extend into subarachnoid space & attach to pia mater
81
Meninges
## Footnote
**(3) Pia Mater**
"soft mother"
**delicate inner membrane** of **CT** **fibers** that adheres to brain's surface
* thin, translucent
* contains capillaries
82
Subarachnoid Space
space between arachnoid layer & pia mater
* filled with **cerebrospinal fluid** to cushion brain
83
Cerebrospinal Fluid
- functions (2)
**clear solution** of NaCl that **fills ventricles**
* **circulates** around brain & spinal cord in **subarachnoid space**
* **cushions** brain
* **transports** substances in/out of brain (**waste**/**nutrients**)
84
Cerebral Cortex
thin folded film of nervous tissue that forms **outer layer** of forebrain
85
(3) parts of **cerebral cortex**
1) Gyri
2) Sulci
3) Fissures
86
1) Gyri
**bumps/ridges** in brain's folded surface (cerebral cortex)
87
2) Sulci
**depressions/grooves** in cerebral cortex surrounding **gyrus**
**-** usually found in **neocortex** or **cerebellum**
88
3) Fissures
**large furrow** that **divides** brain into **lobes** & **hemispheres**
89
Major Fissures (3)
1) Central
2) Longitudinal
3) Lateral (Sylvian)
90
Fissures →
## Footnote
1) Central
seperates **frontal & parietal** lobe
91
Fissures →
2) Longitudinal
seperates **left & right hemispheres**
92
Fissures →
3) Lateral (Sylvian)
seperates **frontal & parietal lobe** from **temporal lobe**
93
BRAIN → **Major Surface Structures**
1) 4 Lobes
a. occipital
b. parietal
c. temporal
d. frontal
2) cerebellum
3) brainstem
4) cranial nerves
94
LABEL DIAGRAMS OF BRAIN
Views:
Lateral
Medial
Ventral
Dorsal
95
Brain → Internal Features
1) White Matter
2) Gray Matter
3) Ventricles
96
1) White Matter
areas of NS rich in fat-sheathed neural axons (myelin)
* arranged in **dorsal & ventral** tracts
* form **connections** between brain cells
97
2) Gray Matter
areas of NS mostly composed of **cell bodies & capillary blood vessels**
* function to collect /modify info or support this activity
98
3) Ventricles
cavities in brain that **produce** & **contain CSF** that **cushions** brain & plays role in brain **metabolism**
99
Ventricular System (4)
CSF flow:
1. lateral ventricles
2. third ventricle
3. fourth ventricle
→ **cerebral aqueduct** (canal running length of spinal cord)
100
**Lateral** Ventricles
paired, one in each hemisphere
extend **laterally** in cerebrum
101
**Third** Ventricle
at **midsagittal line** between **lateral** ventricles
- between **thalami** in **diencephalon**
102
**Fourth** ventricle
between **cerebellum & brainstem**
103
Functions of Ventricles (2)
1) role in **brain metabolism**
2) **cushions** brain (protection)
104
Corpus Callosum
band of white matter fibers connecting left & right hemisphere to allow communication between them
105
Principal Structures of CNS
1) Spinal Cord
2) Brainstem
3) Forebrain
106
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital
brainstem
cerebellum
107
(2) main types of cells in the Brain
1) **Neurons** - carry out brain's major function
2) **Glial** Cells - aid/modulate neuron's activities
108
109
Principle of **Levels of Function**
* replicated function
* add new skills
* increase brain size & behavioral complexity
110
Principle of **Levels of Function**
* replicated function
* add new skills
* increase brain size & behavioral complexity
EXPLAIN
brain has evolved functional levels that overlap in purpose & allow for growing complexity of behavior
* newer levels partly replication functions of older ones
* each new level of training adds new abilities that overlap build on previously acquired skills
111
Brainstem
central structures of brain
- extends upward from where spinal cord enters brain & into lower areas of forebrain
* controls movement
* creates basic sensory reality
* *responsible for most unconscious behavior*
112
Brainstem
* **(3)** parts
1) Hindbrain - *top (forearm)*
2) Midbrain - *middle (wrist)*
3) Diencephalon - *lowest (fist)*
113
Brainstem \> **HINDBRAIN**
* composed of? **(4)**
1) Medulla Oblongata
2) Pons
3) Cerebellum
4) Reticular Formation
114
BRAINSTEM \> Hindbrain
## Footnote
**1) Medulla Oblongata**
continuation of spinal cord in skull
- **vital** functions
* contains **control centres for heart & lungs**
* ****regulates breathing & CV system
- **gag** reflex
- damage = **DEATH**
115
Brainstem \> HINDBRAIN
**2) Pons**
* location
* functions
between **midbrain** (above) & **medulla** oblongata (below) & in front of cerebellum
* bridge
* nuclei within recieve inputs from **cerebellum** & form **bridge** to rest of brain
116
Brainstem \> Hindbrain
3) Cerebellum
under cerebral hemispheres
* motor **coordination** (timing/rhythm/dexterity)
* **cognitive functions**
* involved in basic **procedural memory**
* vital for **conditioning** (association b/w stimuli & intended motor response)
117
Brainstem \> HINDBRAIN
4) Reticular Formation
extends length of brainstem at core
* **netlike mixture** of **neurons** (**gray** matter) & nerve **fibers** (**white** matter)
* nuclei **localized** along length into small patches
* each has special function in stimulating **forebrain**
* **Reticular Activating System (RAS)**
118
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
responsible for regulating **arousal**/**wakefulness & sleep-wake transitions**
* helps mediate transitions from relaxed wakefulness to attentive state
119
Brainstem \> **Midbrain**
* **parts (2)**
1) Tectum
2) Tegmentum
120
Brainstem \> Midbrain
**1) Tectum**
* composed of? (2)
4 bumps on posterior region located dorsally
* **sensory** component of midbrain
* recieves **sensory** info from eyes & ears
1) Superior Colliculi
2) Inferior Colliculi
121
Brainstem \> Midbrain
1) **Tectum**
* Functions of Colliculi
* **sensory-motor coordination**
* process **sensory** info
* produce **orienting** **movements** related to **sensory** inputs
* used for **reflexive orienting**
i.e. automatically turn to look at source of sound
122
Brainstem \> Midbrain
1) Tectum
a. **Superior Colliculi**
VISUAL
* recieves large bundle of nerve fibers from **optic nerve**
123
Brainstem \> Midbrain
1) Tectum
a. **Inferior Colliculi**
AUDITORY
* recieves input from **auditory** pathways
124
Brainstem \> Midbrain
2) Tegmentum
**anterior** region **ventral** to tectum
* composed of many **nuclei**
* involved in sensation & **movement**-related functions
* perception of **pain**
125
Brainstem \> Midbrain
2) Tegmentum
* composed of? (3)
1) Red Nucleus
2) Substantia Nigra
3) Periaqueductal Gray Matter
126
Brainstem \> Midbrain
Tegmentum
**1) Red Nucleus**
* location & function
controls **limb movements**
* coordination/control
paired nuclei between **substantia nigra & reticular formation**
127
Brainstem \> Midbrain
Tegmentum
**2) Substantia Nigra**
* damage/destruction causes?
connected to forebrain
* dark colour due to **dopamine**
* many effects mediated by **striatum**
* allows **basal ganglia** to function normally
Symptoms of **Parkinson's Disease** related to destruction of substantia nigra
128
Brainstem \> Midbrain
Tegmentum
**3) Periaqueductal Gray Matter**
made up of **cell bodies** that surrounds **aqueduct** that joins **3rd & 4th ventricles**
* contains **circuits** controlling **species-typical behavior**
* important role in **modulation of pain** by **opioid drugs**
* ****contains **receptors** for **endogenous cabinoids** *(i.e. morphine/marijuana)*
129
Brainstem \> **Diencephalon**
integrates **sensory & motor info** on its way to **cerebral cortex**
130
Brainstem \> **Diencephalon**
* **principal structures (2)**
1) Hypothalamus
2) Thalamus
131
Brainstem \> Diencephalon
1) **Hypothalamus**
paired structure **inferior & anterior** to **thalamus**
Mediates **autonomic** functions/responses & **hormones**
* controls **hormone** production with **pituitary gland**
* **eating/drinking, sexual behavior, temperature regulation,** emotional behavior & sleeping
132
Brainstem \> Diencephalon
## Footnote
**3) Thalamus**
**sensory & motor gateway**
* recieves inputs from all **sensory systems** → **integration & relay to** appropriate **cortical region**
* i.e. optic tract send info to lateral geniculate nucleus, which sends processes & sends it to visual region of cortex in each hemisphere
133
Principal Structures of Brain:
3) **Forebrain**
* composed of? (3)
* **largest** region of mammalian brain
1) Neocortex (Cerebral cortex)
2) Limbic System
3) Basal Ganglia
134
Forebrain
**1) Basal Ganglia**
* location & function
* collection of nuclei below **white matter** of cortex
* connected to **thalamus** & **midbrain**
* control/coordination of **voluntary movement** (NOT PRODUCE) with **thalamus, substantia nigra & subthalamic nucleus**
* force/exertion
135
Forebrain
1) Basal Ganglia
* **principal structures? (3)**
1) Caudate nucleus
2) Putamen
3) Globus Pallidus
136
Forebrain \> Basal Ganglia
1) Caudate nucleus
* location
``tail``
paired structure
forms **dorsal striatum** with **putamen**
* near midline, above **thalamus** & directly below **lateral ventricles**
137
Forebrain \> Basal Ganglia
**2) Putamen**
round structure at **base of forebrain**
* regulates **movement** & influences types of learning
138
Forebrain \> Basal Ganglia
## Footnote
**3) Globus Pallidus**
paired structure **medial** to **putamen**
* **internal** & **external** portion
* pale appearance due to numerous **myelinated axons**
* recieves input from **caudate & putamen (striatum)** & routed to **thalamus**
* **inhibitory output**
* DIRECTLY → by globus pallidus **interna**
* INDIRECTLY → globus pallidus **externa** passes info to **interna**
139
Forebrain \> Basal Ganglia
* Dysfunction/Disease/Disorder? (3)
1) Parkinson's
2) Tourette's Syndrome
3) Huntington's
140
1) Parkinson's Disease
* cause?
**disorder** of **motor system** characterized by **severe tremors & rigidity**
* most common in **elderly**
- reduced **activity** of **dopamine**-secreting cells caused by **cell death** in **substantia nigra**
141
2) Tourette's Syndrome
* characterized by?
* cause?
* treatment?
disorder characterized by various **motor tics, involuntary vocalizations** & **odd, involuntary movement of** **body** (face/head)
* caused by dysfunction in **thalamus, basal ganglia & frontal cortex**
* treated by **reducing dopamine**
142
3) **Huntington's** Disease
* cause?
**neurodegenerative genetic disorder** that affects **muscle coordination** & leads to **mental decline & behavioral symptoms**
* **input** pathways affected
* **caudate** & **putamen**
* **movement release**
* erratic, uncontrolled
143
Forebrain \> **Limbic System**
* location
* general function
* principal structures (3)
between **neocortex & brainstem**
* involved in **emotion & memory processing**
* role in rewarding properties of psychoactive drugs
composed of:
a) Amygdala
b) Hippocampus
c) Cingulate Cortex
144
Forebrain \> Limbic System
**a) Amygdala**
- paired structure at base of **caudate nucleus**
* *evaluates significance of info received*
* **emotion processing**
* **recognition** of emotion in others
145
Forebrain \> Limbic System
**a) Amygdala**
* damage?
* activity
**damage** to amygdala results in tame behavior in situations that would otherwise evoke **fear/stress**
* **increased** activity in people with **depression/anxiety**
*
146
Forebrain \> Limbic System
**b) Hippocampus**
* location
* function
paired **horseshoe**-shaped structure forming **lower** part of **border**
* involved in:
* **memory → semantic** (facts/places)
* **spatial navigation** (directions
* **turning OFF stress response**
* ****recieves info on **stress hormone levels**
* site of **neurogenesis**
147
Forebrain \> Limbic System
**c) Cingulate Cortex**
above **corpus callosum**
* **cognitive & emotional processing**
* similar functions as **prefrontal cortex**
* active in **attention, planning, decision-making, motivational states**
148
Forebrain \> Neocortex
* location
* function
* composed of? (4)
* **outermost** layer
* **creates** & **responds** to **perceptual** world
* **sophisticated** processing
4 lobes:
a) Occipital
b) Parietal
c) Temporal
d) Frontal
149
Forebrain \> Neocortex
**a) Occipital**
* location
* function
**Posterior** part of brain
* **visual** functions (initial perception)
**_primary visual cortex_** - recieves info from **thalamus** & sends to other *associated* **(extrastriate)** regions for further processing
* *tuned for color, movement, lines/orientation, shapes*
150
Forebrain \> Neocortex
a) Occipital
* damage
**deficits** in processing **visual** info
## Footnote
*i.e. unable to identify shape/color of objects*
151
Forebrain \> Neocortex
b) Parietal
* location
* functions (3)
* regions
anterior to **occipital lobe** & above **temporal lobe**
**Primary Somatosensory Cortex → tactile** function (process info related to sense of **touch**) & sends to association cortices
* **spatial processing** (prioprioception)
* **movement programming** (directing towards goal/task)
* **2 point discrimination**
**Dorsal-Visual Stream**
152
Forebrain \> Neocortex
b) Parietal
* **damage**
difficulties **identifying**/**locating** **stimulation** on skin
153
**Dorsal Visual Stream**
"where" & "how" stream
pathway from **primary visual cortex (V1)** in **occipital lobe** into **parietal lobe**
* involved in **spatial awareness** & **guiding** actions
* info about body integrated with visual info
154
Forebrain \> Neocortex
**b) Parietal Lobe**
* **damage?**
damage causes **loss** of **movement coordination**
**Apraxia =** motor programming impairment
* difficulty with motor planning to perform tasks
e. g., asked to use *scissors → can't show how to use, apply to wrong target, grab wrong part,*
155
Split Brain Patients
**severed corpus callosum** used to treat **severe epilepsy**
* inhibits communication between hemispheres
* may experience **alien-limb syndrome**
* ****limb engages in **movement** without individual's **awareness/control** over action
* image shown only in **left VF →** can't say what they saw
* **left** VF → **right** hemisphere
* **language** processing → **left** hemisphere
156
Forebrain \> Neocortex
c) **Temporal Lobe**
* location
* function
* important regions (2)
* involved in?
lateral side of brain below **parietal & frontal lobe**
* visual **recognition** (Ventral-Visual Stream)
* role in **memory**
* ****recognizing **people** (contains hippocampi)
**Primary Auditory Cortex** → auditory functions (music/language)
**Wernicke's Area**
* **Ventral-Visual Stream**
157
Forebrain \> Neocortex
c) Temporal Lobe
* **Ventral-Visual Stream**
"what" stream
associated with **object recognition & representation** & long-term memory storage
158
Forebrain \> Neocortex
c) Temporal Lobe
* **Wernicke's Area**
**posterior part** of **temporal lobe**
* involved in:
* **production** of **written** & **spoken** **language**
* **language comprehension**
159
Forebrain \> Neocortex
c) Temporal Lobe
* Wernicke's Area
* damage?
**Aphasia**
* **fluent →** connect words but lack meaning
* lack of **comprehension** (difficulty recognizing words)
160
Forebrain \> Neocortex
c) Temporal Lobe
* damage?
**Agnosia**
**- inability to recognize** objects/faces/sounds
161
Forebrain \> Neocortex
d) **Frontal Lobe**
anterior lobe
* ensures **behavior** is **context-appropriate** **_(Prefrontal Cortex)_**
* performs **executive functions**
* **programming** movement
* precise (aided by basal ganglia & cerebellum)
**Primary Motor Cortex**
**Broca's Area**
162
Forebrain \> Neocortex
d) Frontal Lobe
* **Broca's area**
motor aspect of language
* **speech production**
* involved in **writing words**
163
Forebrain \> Neocortex
d) Frontal Lobe
* Broca's area
* **damage**
**non-fluent aphasia**
* meaningful words but broken/stuttered speech
164
Forebrain \> Neocortex
d) Frontal Lobe
* **damage**
difficulties **organizing** ongoing **behavior** & **planning** for **future**
165
**Cytoarchectonics**
* significance?
microscopic study of body tissue's cellular composition
* used to make **cortical maps** based on cell **organization**, **structure** & **distribution**
166
Brodmann's maps
differentiated **cortical areas** using **cell characteristics**
167
How else is the cortex mapped? (2)
* fMRI (functional MRI)
* brain stimulation
168
(10 Principles of NS function
1) NS **creates movement & perception**
2) Forever Changing (**Plasticity**)
3) Many Brain Circuits are **Crossed**
4) CNS has **multiple levels of function**
5) Brain is **Symmetrical & Asymmetrical**
6) **Hierarchical & Parallel Organization**
7) **Sensory & Motor** Divisions
8) **Sensory input** divided for object **recognition** & **motor** **control**
9) **Localized & Distributed Functions**
10) Uses **Excitation & Inhibition**
169
1) NS creates movement & perception
NS creates **perceptual reality** & allows us to **act** within it
170
2) Forever Changing (Plasticity)
brain is **physically changed** by experience
* **plasticity =** brain's ability to change
171
3) Many Brain Circuits are Crossed
most **sensory & motor** inputs to/from brain are **contralateral**
172
4) CNS has multiple levels of function
**sensory & motor** processing occurs at **many levels** of CNS (spinal cord, brainstem & forebrain)
* higher levels allow for more **elaborate** processing
173
5) Brain is Symmetrical & Asymmetrical
**Structural**
* **symmetry -** primary sensory/motor cortices
* **asymmetry -** Wernicke's area (larger in left H)
**Functional**
* **symmetry -** sensory & motor control
* **asymmetry -** language (left/Wernicke's) vs music (right except musicians)
174
6) Hierarchical & Parallel Organization
**hierarchical** systems process info in series of steps with **increasing complexity**
**parallel** system processes info **concurrently**
* same info processed dif places & ways
175
7) Sensory & Motor Divisions
**Peripheral NS**
* spinal & cranial nerves = mixed
**Central NS**
* **spinal cord** to **cortex**
176
8) Sensory input divided for object recognition & motor control
**sensory info** used for:
* motor **control** (**dorsal** visual stream)
* object **recognition** (**ventral** visual stream)
these processes take place in **parallel** but **distinct** regions
177
9) Localized & Distributed Functions
**basic** functions are **localized** (controlled by specific brain region)
**complex** functions are **distributed** (**multiple** **localized** areas play role in function)
178
10) Uses Excitation & Inhibition
**Parasympathetic** vs. **Sympathetic**
179
