Midterm 1 Flashcards
(281 cards)
1
Q
What is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes?
A
psychology
2
Q
What is the basis of all psychological research to describe, predict and explain human behavior and mental processes?
A
the scientific method
3
Q
Subfield of psychology that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system as well as other biological aspects of the body determine behavior
A
behavioral neuroscience
4
Q
Branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning and thinking of the world
A
experimental psychology
5
Q
Focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another
A
personality
6
Q
Explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease ex. stress
A
health
7
Q
Study, diagnosis, and treatment of psych factors
A
clinical
8
Q
Study of higher mental processes
A
cognitive
9
Q
Focuses primarily on education, social, and career adjustment problems
A
counseling
10
Q
Concerned with teaching and learning processes such as the relationship between motivation and school performance
A
educational
11
Q
Consider how behavior is influence by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
A
evolutionary
12
Q
Devotion to counseling children in elementary and 2o schools who have academic or emotional problems
A
school
13
Q
What is the difference between a psychiatrist and psychologist?
A
A psychiatrist has a medical degree (dissertation) that prescribes, diagnosis, and treat. A psychologist focus primarily in treatment on a psychological disorders.
14
Q
Who is responsible for the creation of structuralism?
A
Wilhelm Wundt
15
Q
What is structuralism?
A
focus on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities.
16
Q
How was structuralism studied? Define this procedure.
A
introspection: procedure to describe what one experiences in response to stimuli
17
Q
what perspective replaced structuralism?
A
functionalism
18
Q
Define: functionalism
A
what the mind does and how behavior functions
19
Q
Who led the functionalist movement?
A
William James
20
Q
What is Gestalt Psychology?
A
“The whole is different from the sum of its parts” Our perception, or understanding of objects is greater than the individual elements that make up our perception.
21
Q
what are the 5 studies of psychology?
A
- humanistic
- cognitive
- psychodynamic
- behavioral
- neuroscience
22
Q
Contends that people can control their behavior and that they naturally try to reach their full potential
A
humanistic approach
23
Q
What is nature vs nurture?
A
Nurture says the environment influences us while nature says it’s genetics.
24
Q
What is conscious vs unconscious?
A
Conscious is our awareness while the unconscious is something that we are not aware of.
25
What is observable behavior vs internal mental processes?
Should psychology be focused on behavior that can be observed or unseen mental processes
26
What is free will vs determinism?
how much of behavior is made freely by an individual or factors beyond one's willful choices
27
What is individual differences vs universal principles?
How much of our behavior is a consequence of unique qualities and how much reflects the environment
28
What are the 5 steps in the scientific method?
1. question
2. hypothesis
3. experiment
4. observe
5. conclude
29
Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest
theory
30
A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested
hypothesis
31
What is an operational definition?
the translation of a hypothesis into specific , testable, procedures that can be measured and observed
32
If one uses a newspaper as a resource for their research, what type of research is that?
archival research
33
Observing a chess game that you have no control over or cannot manipulate is called what kind of research?
naturalistic research
34
Using a series of questions given to a sample of people from a larger group of people is called what type of research?
survey research
35
An in-depth intensive investigation on Albert Einstein is what what type of study?
case study
36
Behaviors, events, or other characteristic that can change, or vary, in some way
variables
37
If x and y have a direct relationship to each other what kind of research would be used?
correlation research
38
What indicates a positive correlation?
if one variable increases the second variable will also increase
39
What indicated a negative correlation?
if one variable increases the second variable will decrease
40
The manipulation implemented by the experimenter which one group will receive while the other group doesn't. What is the first group receiving?
a treatment
41
Which variable is manipulated by the experimenter?
independent variable
42
Which variable is measured in a study?
dependent variable
43
What is random assignment to condition?
Participants are assigned to different experimental groups bon the basis of chance alone.
44
What are the basic elements of the nervous system?
neurons
45
What are the functions of a neuron?
1. receive signals from the environment
2. relay nervous system messages to muscles and target cells
3. communicate with other neurons
46
What is the function of glial cells?
to provide nourishment and insulate neurons
47
In order state how an electrical impulse travels along a neuron?
1. message is received via dendrites-> cell body -> down the axon -> to the axon terminal where terminal buttons are located -> synapse
48
What is the difference between a neuron that has a myelin sheath and one that doesn't?
the neuron with the myelin sheath will have a more rapid speed of electrical impulse than one that doesn't
49
What is the all-or-none law for neurons?
they are either on or off, nothing is between
50
At a resting state what are the charges inside outside the neuron?
the neuron is negative inside and positive outside.
51
What is action potential?
a rush of + ions inside via the cell membrane creating an electrical charge from negative to positive
52
T/F. A neuron can fire again immediately after any amount of stimulation present.
F. The neuron cannot fire immediately
53
What are the type of neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior?
mirror neurons
54
Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite of a receiving neuron?
neurotransmitters
55
What type of messages make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon?
Excitatory messages
56
What type of message will prevent or decrease the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire?
Inhibitory messages
57
What is reuptake?
Reabsorption by the terminal buttons
58
What are considered the "natural painkillers" chemicals?
endorphins
59
What are the 2 branches of the nervous system?
central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
60
What does the CNS consist?
brain and spinal cord
61
What does the PNS consist?
nerves
62
What are the 2 subdivisions of the PNS?
Autonomic and Somatic
63
What are the 2 subdivisions of the Autonomic NS?
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
64
Which voluntary and which is involuntary between Autonomic NS and Somatic?
Autonomic: involuntary
Somatic: Voluntary
65
What is an automatic involuntary response to an incoming stimulus?
reflex
66
What are Sensory (afferent) neurons?
Transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the CNS
67
What are Motor (efferent) neurons?
Communicate information from the brain and CNS to muscles and specific target cells
68
What is responsible for "flight or fight?"
Sympathetic Division
69
What calms the body down after a stressful situation?
Parasympathetic
70
What are the primary organs involved i the endocrine system?
Pituitary gland, thyroid, testes, ovaries, adrenal glands pineal body, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus
71
What does an EEG measure?
Brain activity to diagnosis disorders such epilepsy and learning disabilities
72
How do we view vivid, detailed images of the functioning brain?
fMRI
73
How do we id presence of brain tumors?
PET scan
74
What parts of the brain make up the hindbrain?
pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum
75
If a person cannot balance their bodies, which part of the brain should checked?
the cerebellum
76
Where does functioning of heartbeat and breathing occur?
medulla
77
What part of the brain is the relay station for info about the senses?
thalamus
78
If homeostasis is unbalanced and vital behaviors are abnormal which part of the brain may be problematic?
the hypothalamus
79
Which 2 parts of the brain make up the limbic system?
amygdala and hippocampus
80
What plays an important role in memory and learning?
hippocampus
81
What occurs if there damage to the amygdala?
one can become belligerent due to the fact the amygdala controls aggression
82
What part of the brain is considered to be the "new brain?'
cerebral cortex
83
What is the function of the cerebral cortex?
judgment, decision making, and evaluating situations
84
What are the 4 lobes of the brain? and their functions
1. frontal- judgment
2. parietal- somatosensory
3. temporal- auditory
4. occipital-visual
85
Changes in the brain that occur throughout the life span relating to the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas
Neuroplasticity
86
What does it mean the 2 hemispheres are lateralized?
certain behaviors are more likely to reflect activity in one hemisphere than in the other
87
What are dominances in the left and right brain?
left: speaking, thinking, reading, reasoning, process info sequentially
right: nonverbal, spatial relationships, recognition of patterns, music, and drawing
88
T/F. It is a mistake to think of particular kinds of info as being processed solely in the right or left hemisphere
T. The hemispheres work interdependently
89
What is sensation?
the activations of the sense organs by a source of physical organs
90
The sorting out, interpretation analysis, and integration of stimuli carried out by the sense organs and brain
Perception
91
How do stimuli vary?
intensity and type
92
T/F. Different types of stimuli activate the same sense organs.
F. Different types of stimuli activate different organs
93
What is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it be detected?
absolute threshold
94
What is the smallest level of added or reduced stimulation requires to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred?
difference threshold
95
Just a noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the intensity of an initial stimulus
Weber's Law
96
An adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli
adaptation
97
What is the range of spectrum of wavelengths that our eyes can detect?
visual spectrum
98
Which part of the eye is responsible for focusing the light more sharply by bending light as it passes?
cornea
99
What is the colored part of the eye?
iris
100
What dilates to let more light in?
the pupil
101
What is directly behind the pupil bending rays of light to focus on the rear eye?
the lens
102
What is the function of the retina?
Convert electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain
103
What are the 2 light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina?
rods and cones
104
What of the light-sensitive receptor cells allows you to see in the dark? light?
cones: light
rods: dark
105
Where cones more concentrated?
in the fovea centralis
106
What type of proteins do rods contain?
rhodopsin
107
What occurs when light enter the eye?
Light travels through the ganglion and bipolar cells and strike the cones and rods then transmit nerve impulses to the brain via bipolar and ganglion cells to the optic nerve
108
What is special about the optic nerve?
There is a blindspot due to the lack of cones and rods in this region
109
This theory suggests that there are 3 kinds if cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths
Trichromatic theory of color vision
110
Why does afterimaging occur?
Activity in the retina continues even when you are no longer staring at the original picture
111
Which theory does after imaging show it doesn't explain color vision completely?
trichromatic theory of color vision
112
Which theory states that receptor cells for color are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other and explain after images?
Opponent-process theory of color vision
113
What is sound?
the movement of air molecules brought about a source of vibration
114
What is the function of the eardrum?
Vibrates when sound hits it. The more intense the sound the more the eardrum vibrates
115
Which 3 bones make up the middle ear?
stirrup, hammer, and anvil
116
Which part of the ear changes the sound vibrations into a form in which they can be transmitted to the brain?
inner ear
117
When sound enters the inner ear through the oval window, it moves into the what?
the cochlea
118
What divides the cochlea into an upper and a lower chamber?
basilar membrane
119
What is the basilar membrane covered with?
hair cells
120
What is the function of the hair cells?
transmit neural messages to the brain
121
What is the primary characteristic of sound?
frequency
122
Amplitude allows us to what?
distinguish between loud and soft sounds
123
What is the measurement of sound?
decibels
124
What is the characteristic that makes sound seem high or low?
pitch
125
Which theory of sound states that different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies?
place theory of hearing
126
Which theory states that the entire basilar membrane acts like a microphone, vibrating as a whole in response to a sound?
frequency theory of hearing
127
What is the main structure of the vestibular system?
semicircular canals
128
What are semicircular canals?
three tube-like structures that contain fluid which sloshes when the head moves
129
T/F. Women have a better sense of smell than men
true
130
T/F Each olfactory receptor is so specialized that it responds only to a small band of different odors
True
131
What are chemicals that are secreted into the environment that produce a social response in other members of the same species
pheromones
132
What are the 3 skin senses?
touch pressure, temperature, and pain
133
Which theory states that particular nerve receptors in the spinal cord lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain?
gate-control theory of pain
134
What are the 4 ways in which we organize bits into meaningful wholes?
closure, proximity, similarity, and simplicity
135
Perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations
top-down processing
136
Perception that consists of the progression of recognizing and processing info and individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole
bottom-up processing
137
What is depth-perception?
the ability to view the world in 3D and to perceive distance
138
What is the difference in the images by the left and right eye
binocular disparity
139
The recognition that physical objects are unvarying and consistent even though our sensory inout about them varies
perceptual constancy
140
A physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception
visual illusions
141
What is consciousness?
awareness of sensation, thoughts, and feelings
142
What are considered to be altered states of consciousness?
sleeping and dreaming, hypnosis
143
Which stage of sleep has sleep spindles and increases the difficulty to wake someone?
stage 2
144
What stage is someone have the slowest wave pattern and least responsive to outside stimulation?
stage 4
145
Which stage is a transition between wakefulness and sleep?
stage 1
146
Which stage has slower, higher peaks, and lower valleys in the wave pattern?
stage 3
147
In which stage of sleep of does dream usually occur?
REM
148
What happens to the muscles and brain during REM?
The major muscles appear to be paralyzed, but the brain is still active
149
What is the rebound effect?
REM-deprived sleepers spend more time in this state more than usual
150
What are 3 purposes of sleep?
evolutionary perspective, restoration and replenishment from brain and body, and physical growth and brain development
151
What is the name of Freudian's theory of sleep and what does it suggests?
the unconscious wish fulfillment theory: dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled
152
What is latent content oppose to manifest content?
latent content is the actual, underlying wishes that dream represent and manifest content is the dreamer's storyline
153
What does the dreams-for-survival theory suggest?
Dreams gives us time to process critical info for daily survival. Dreams represent daily lives, uncertainties and ideas
154
What does the activation-synthesis theory suggests?
Dreams result from random activation of neurons during REM which is initiated in pons which signal to the cortex. Clue to fear, emotion and concerns
155
If Tyler has difficulty breathing while sleeping causing a significant loss of REM constantly awakening in the night due to lack of oxygen. Tyler may suffer from what?
sleep apnea
156
Mai is 5 years old in non-REM sleep every night she suddenly awakes with fear, panic and goes back to sleep with no problem. What condition does Mai have?
Night terrors
157
Sam has to wear helmet because he falls asleep randomly even while he walking or n the middle of a conversation. What is Sam suffering from?
narcolepsy
158
Lisa spaces out during class creating a fantasy about her going to Disneyland, what is this fantasy called?
a daydream
159
A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others
hypnosis
160
T/F. During hypnosis people lose all of their own will.
False, people do not lose will of their own
161
T/F. During hypnosis people will not perform antisocial behavior
true
162
T/F. People will reveal hidden truths about themselves and carry out self-destructive acts
False. People will not reveal hidden truths or carry out self-destructive acts
163
List the 5 areas have hypnosis found to be effective.
1. improving athletic performance
2. controlling pain
3. reducing pain
4. reducing smoking
5. assisting in law enforcement
164
What is the learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness?
Meditation
165
T/F. Meditation typically consist of the repetition of a mantra
T
166
What is the function of a psychoactive drug?
they influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior
167
What type of drug produces a physiological and psychological dependence in the user and have withdrawals?
addictive drugs
168
What is the difference between physiological and psychological dependence?
Physiological dependence the body has become accustomed to functioning with the drug it cannot function without it. on the other hand a psychological dependence is a person believing that they need the drug to respond to stress of daily living.
169
What type of drug effects the CNS causing a rise in heart rate, BP and muscular tension?
stimulant
170
What are types of stimulants?
caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines (speed, meth, bath salts), cocaine
171
What type of drugs impede the NS by causing neurons to fire more slowly?
Depressants
172
What are some common depressants?
Alcohol, barbiturates, rohypnol (date rape drug)
173
What type of drugs increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety?
narcotics
174
What are the 2 types of narcotics?
morphine and heroin
175
What type of drugs change the perceptual processes?
hallucinogens
176
What are types of hallucinogens?
marijuana, LSDM MDMA (Ecstasy or molly)
177
Define learning.
a relatively permanent change in behavior or performance that is brought by experience
178
What is the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus?
habituation
179
What is the type of learning in which a natural stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about a response?
classical conditioning
180
In pavlov's experiment what was the neutral stimulus?
the bell because it does not bring about a natural response
181
In Pavlov's experiment what was the unconditioned stimulus?
The UCS is the meat because it automatically brought about salivation
182
In Pavlov's experiment what was the unconditioned response?
the salivation because it was an natural response to the meat (UCS)
183
In Pavlov's experiment what was the conditioned stimulus?
the bell because after learning occurred just the sound of the bell caused salivation
184
In Pavlov's experiment what was the conditioned response?
the salivation which was the learned response after the sound of the bell (CS)
185
T/F. Classical conditioning does lead to phobias
True
186
What is extinction?
when a previous conditioned response decreases and eventually disappears
187
When does spontaneous recovery occur?
when there is reemergence if a unconditioned response after extinction occurs
188
What is called when a stimulus similar to the CS produces a CR?
stimulus generalization
189
Cleo runs to the kitchen when she hears a can opener, but does not run into the kitchen when she hears the blender, what is this called?
stimulus discrimination
190
What is the type of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences?
Operant conditioning
191
What is the law of effect?
responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
192
What is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated?
reinforcement
193
________ is any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.
reinforcer
194
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?
Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs and work naturally while secondary reinforcers is a stimulus becoming reinforced due to association with a primary reinforcer
195
Can reward and reinforcer be used synomously?
no because not all reinforcers are positive
196
If Kim gets money for raising her hand in class, what is the money considered?
a positive reinforcer
197
If motrin takes away Leslie's headache and it works she will most likely take motrin again when her head hurts, what is the motrin?
a negative reinforcer
198
What refers to the stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again?
punishment
199
When Iris gets in trouble her mom gives her a spanking, what is the spanking?
positive punishment
200
Devin gets an F in math, so his mom takes away his car keys, what is his mom taking away his keys?
negative punishment
201
Is reinforcement or punishment more effective?
reinforcement
202
If behavior is reinforced every time it occurs what type of schedule is this?
continuous reinforcement schedule
203
If a reinforce Malik's behavior only sometimes, what type of schedule is this?
partial reinforcement schedule
204
What type of schedule is learned better? What type of schedule makes learning las longer?
continuous is learned better but partial is has a longer learning effect
205
What is the difference between ratio and interval schedules?
ratio is based on the number of responses while interval is based on the amount of time.
206
What is the difference between fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules?
fixed-ratio work is quicker leading to faster extinction while variable-ration leads to a faster rate or response and extinction resistance
207
If a professor gives a midterm every 3 months, a student is more likely to cram and forget information in between exams, what type of schedule is this?
fixed-interval schedule
208
If a professor gives pop quizzes that vary from 3 days- 3 months, students are more likely to study more and keep up with the material, what type of schedule is this?
variable-interval schedule
209
What type of learning allows lions to jump through hoops, and dolphins rescuing divers lost at sea?
shaping
210
What is it called when a new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some incentive occurs provided for displaying it.
latent learning
211
If I see Bob Marley being positive and giving back to his community, if I go and do the same, what kind of learning is this?
observational learning
212
What are the 3 steps in memory?
encoding -> storage -> retrieval
213
What is the 3- system approach?
1. sensory
2. short-term
3. long-term
214
What is the initial, momentary storage of info that only lasts instantly?
sensory memory
215
What type of memory holds info for 15-25s?
short-term
216
What type of memory is stored in a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve?
long-term
217
What is the difference between echoic and iconic memory?
echoic is auditory sensory and iconic is visual sensory
218
T/F. Unless memory is stored or transferred into short-term it will be lost
T
219
What is the difference between sensory and short-term memory?
sensory holds a relatively full and detailed-if short lived-representation while short term has incomplete representational capabilities
220
The ability to ________ info allows the ability to recall info in short-term
chunk
221
What is a type of way to transfer short-term into long-term?
rehearsal
222
Instead of just repeating the info but actually processed in such a way that the information is organized is called what?
elaborative rehearsal
223
What is a type of elaborative rehearsal?
use of mnemonics
224
If a math problem has multiple steps and storing the result of one step and using it in another is an example of what?
working memory
225
Working memory contains a central executive processor which have what 3 distinct storage and rehearsal stages?
1. visual store
2. verbal store
3. episodic buffer
226
If I'm driving and trying to argue with my boyfriend, what effect does working memory have?
it uses a significant amount of cognitive resources
227
What is the serial position effect?
the ability to recall info in a list depends in where the item appears in the list
228
If i remember oranges because it was the last item on the list this is called what?
recency effect
229
If I remember protein powder because it was first on the list this is called what?
primacy effect
230
If I can remember that 9/11 occurred in 2001 when the plane flew into the World Trade Center, this is called what type of memory?
declarative memory- factual info for dates and facts
231
How to fix a light bulb or how to make a protein shake, is considered to be what type of memory?
procedural memory- memory for skills and habits
232
What is the type of memory used for general knowledge and facts about the world and rules of logic?
semantic memory
233
What is the type of memory for events that occur in a particular time and place?
episodic memory
234
A web cluster used to make associations is called?
semantic networks
235
What is it called when a neural pathway becomes excited while a new response is being learned simultaneously the number of synapses increase as dendrites branch out to receive messages?
long-term potentiation
236
This occurs in the hypothalamus in which memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory?
consolidation
237
A specific piece of info retrieved such as that an answer to a fill in the blank question.
recall
238
This occurs when people are present with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it previously or asked to id it from a list of alt?
recognition
239
Which easier recognition or recall?
recognition, recall is more difficult because it consists of a series of processes
240
What is the deeper the initial level of processing of specific info the longer the longer the info will be retained?
levels-of-processing theory
241
T/F. Thinking about the meaning of the terms and reflecting in how they relate to info that you already know result in far more effective long-term memory
True
242
What type memory is implicit memory?
Refers to memory that we are not consciously aware but can affect subsequent performance and behavior
243
What type of memory is explicit memory?
refers to intentional or consciously recollection of information
244
_______ allows us to remember new info better and faster because of memory we already have stored in memory.
Priming
245
What occurs when exposure to a word or concept later that makes it easier to recall later?
priming
246
The fact that I remember being in Mrs. Krista's class and she was sitting in her chair is what called what type of memory?
flashbulb memory
247
T/F Details recalled in flashbulb memories are often accurate particularly when they involve highly emotional events
False they are often inaccurate when involved with highly emotional events
248
What are the type of processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events?
constructive processes
249
What are organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the new way info is interpreted, stored and recalled?
schemas
250
A memory that is pushed into the unconscious and not recalled until triggered is called what?
repressed memory
251
What type of memory is develop when people are unable to recall the source if a memory of a particular event which hey have only vague recollections?
false memory
252
If I can recollect info about my own life this is called?
autobiographical memory
253
What are ways we forget info?
1. we may have not paid attention to the material in the first place
2. decay
3. interference
4. cue-dependent forgetting
254
What is the loss of info in memory through nonuse?
decay
255
What is the loss of info due to info stored in memory is disrupts the recall of other info stored in memory?
interference
256
What loss is forgetting that occurs where there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle info that is in memory? For example retracing your steps when you lose your keys
cue-dependent forgetting
257
What is proactive interference?
info learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer info
258
What is retroactive interference?
occurs when material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of info that was learned earlier
259
What is retrograde amnesia?
memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new info, loss of long-term memory
260
What is anterograde amnesia?
loss of memory occurs for events that follow, loss of short-term memory
261
Psychologist define _______ as brain activity in which we mentally manipulate info including words, visual images, sounds or other data.
thinking
262
______ are representations in the mind of an object or event
mental images
263
What are concepts?
mental groupings of similar objects, events or people. enable also to organize complexities into categories that are easier to understand
264
If I think if bird and the first bird I imagine is a pigeon, what is the pigeon?
a prototype
265
What is the process by which info is used to draw conclusions and make decisions?
reasoning
266
What is reasoning from general to the specific?
deductive reasoning
267
What is reasoning from the specific to the general?
inductive reasoning
268
What is the difference between an algorithm and heuristic?
an algorithm is error free and a heuristic is not
269
Describe the 2 types of heuristics.
Availability- judgment of the likelihood of an event occurring on the basis of how easy is to think of an example
Familiarity- treating something you are more familiar with superior than something you are not
270
What are the 3 steps to solve a problem?
1. Preparation- understanding and diagnosis the problem
2. Production- generating solutions
3. Judgment- if solution is correct
271
What are the 3 types of problems?
1. arrangement
2, inducing structure
3. transformation
272
Which problem involves association and identifying a relationship between elements creating a new relationship? ex. sequences
inducing structure
273
Which problem consists of changing the initial state into the goal state?
transformation
274
Which problem requires rearranging or recombining elements in a way that will satisfy certain criterion? ex. anagrams
arrangement
275
What is the difference between a well-define and ill-defined problem?
a well- defined problem is something like a mathematical equation, which are clear and available. on the other hand an ill-define problem is not available or clear, this would include solving world peace or something of that nature (moral reasoning)
276
What is a means-ends analysis?
repeated tests for difference between the desired outcome and what currently exists. each step brings a person closer to an resolution
277
What is insight?
a sudden awareness of the relationship among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated
278
What is the tendency to think an object only in terms of its typical use?
functional fixedness
279
What is the tendency to approach a problem in a certain way because that method worked previously?
mental set
280
______ is the ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways
creativity
281
What is the difference between divergent and convergent thinking?
divergent thinking is generating unusual responses to problems or responses, while convergent thinking is viewed as having single answer which is based on knowledge and logic
