Midterm 1 Flashcards

(122 cards)

1
Q

Descent with modification

A

o Ancestor gave rise to diversity. We all come from one common ancestor

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2
Q

Food webs

A

o Energy and nutrients are transferred between organisms in an ecosystem as they compete for light or are consumed by other organisms
o Structure of food web is determined by the amount of energy at any trophic level

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3
Q

Symbiotic Interactions

A

o Long term interactions between organisms
♣ Positive = mutualism
• Ex. Cooperation between ant-plants and plants
♣ Negative = parasitism
♣ Neutral = Commensalism

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4
Q

Food Chain/Trophic Levels

A
  • Primary producer -> primary consumer -> secondary consumer -> etc.
  • Photosynthetic organisms- at base. Take energy from the sun and use that energy to make carbohydrates
  • Energy is lost from the system by heat as they pass from one trophic level to the other
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5
Q

How is energy lost between trophic levels?

A

Cell respiration
feces/waste management
growth

reason why there are less orgs at each trophic level

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6
Q

Feed conversion ratio

A

Amount of feed : weight gain

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7
Q

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

A

Total amount of CO2 that is fixed by plants through photosynthesis = energy captured

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8
Q

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

A

o Gross primary productivity minus the energy used by plants for their own growth and respiration = energy available to other organisms
♣ NPP = GPP – R

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9
Q

Carbon Cycle

A

o Photosynthesis Organic Carbon Animal Respiration and Plant Respiration Photosynthesis

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10
Q

Human appropriation of net primary productivity

A

basically when we steal from the primary productivity directly

Food:plants, animal products
Fiber:construction, paper, clothing
Fuel:wood, oil, gas

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11
Q

how many nutrients required for life

A

Macronutrients: acquired from air and water
CarbonHydrogenOxygenNitrogen

Micronutrients: acquired from the soil
21 other elements

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12
Q

Micronutrient deficiency diseases

A
o	Iodine (goiter)
o	Iron (anemia)
o	Calcium (osteoporosis)
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13
Q

Macromolecules

A

Carbohydrates
Lipids (fats and oils)
Proteins
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

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14
Q

Small molecules

A

Vitamins
Minerals
Phytochemicals

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15
Q

Uses of chemicals in food

A
  • Structural: components of cells and tissues (proteins, cell walls, bones, cuticle, etc.)
  • Energy: breakdown of complex molecules releases energy, which is used to power all of a cell’s activities.
  • Metabolic: facilitate enzymatic reactions, osmolytes, membrane potential etc.
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16
Q

Where is energy of food stored?

A

The energy in food is stored as covalent bonds, and this energy is released, and can be used for other activities, when these bonds are broken.

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17
Q

What determines melting temperature of fat?

A

Number of double bonds

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18
Q

Humans and amino acids

A

Humans can synthesize 12 of the 20 amino acids. The remainin 8 (“essential”) must be obtained from food.

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19
Q

Vitamin A

A

retinol, photoreceptor pigments in retina of the eye; growth factor; immune system; antioxidant

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20
Q

Vitamin B3

A

precursor of NAD and NADP which are involved in many metabolic processes

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21
Q

Vitamin C

A

Co-factor in the enzymatic reactions that produce collagen; antioxidant

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22
Q

Alkaloids

A

“ine” ending, contain nitrogen and affect our nervous system

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23
Q

Terpenoids

A

diverse, complicated structures

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24
Q

Phenolics

A

basis for the flavor and color of many plants

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25
What comes from proplastid?
chloroplasts
26
What is the source of the oxygen produced in
WATER
27
Light Rxns
o Occur in the grana (thylakoid membranes) o Light causes the electrons to move to higher energy states and energy is released as the electrons return to lower e state create e to power carbon fixing dark rxn
28
Rubisco! Calvin Cycle
o Fix the carbon o Rubisco attaches to CO2 to attach it to RuBP o End result is the production of a 3 carbon sugar that you can use to make G3P o CO2 is taken up by the enzyme, attached, and processed to make glucose
29
Casein
micelles
30
Lacalbumin
soluble (whey)
31
how does cow milk differ from human milk
♣ Cow milk has more protein than human milk and more minerals ♣ Cow milk has about the same fat as human milk
32
lactase activity ______ in age in humans
decreases
33
more lactose intolerance in
minority groups
34
why is lactose free milk sweeter?
milk sugar lactase is broken down into two simple sugars, galactose and glucose
35
Glycolysis:
breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
36
Citric acid cycle:
completes the breakdown of pyruvate)
37
Electron transport:
uses electrons from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to transform O2 into water.
38
most of the fat in milk is
saturated (75%)
39
__________ produces smaller globules surrounded by casein
homogenization (increasing density) a process by which the fat droplets from milk are emulsified and the cream does not separate.
40
Two major classes of proteins in milk
Casein – micelles (curds) | Lacalbumin – soluble (whey)
41
Whey proteins precipitate at ____ temperatures and ____ pH than casein
higher; lower
42
DARK = Slow twitch or oxidative muscle
many mitochondria, energy from respiration
43
WHITE = Fast twitch or glycolytic
few mitochondria, energy from glycolysis
44
Heme group:
Iron-containing compound that binds oxygen and molecules that contain oxygen.
45
smooth muscle
not organized into bundles
46
what is gelatin
dissociated collagen
47
what are ligaments and tendons made of?
entirely collagen
48
what holds myofibers of striated muscle together?
collagen
49
most of the muscle in fish is _________
fast twitch (white)
50
myotomes
the way the fish muscle is organized (sheets that have connective tissue)
51
effect of salt brining on muscle
more salty, the more the muscle filaments are fucked with
52
stress effects on the muscle
``` short term: low pH (due to glycolysis) protein breakdown water loss (you get the fast twitch white looking muscle) ``` chronic term: high pH protein intact water retained
53
what can be used to prolong redness in meat in the US?
CO
54
color of iron when bound to oxygen
red
55
color of iron when bound to nitrite
pink
56
color of iron when bound to water
brown
57
why do species differ in the amount of myoglobin in their muscle?
life style -- basically do they need to move quickly, short term (fast twitch), or do they need to move consistently long term (slow twitch
58
_______ is to muscle what hemoglobin is to blood
myoglobin
59
myofibers have ________
multiple nuclei
60
high energy config of actin myosin
when its adp and pi and super fired up to cross bridge
61
thick filament
myosin
62
thin filament
actin
63
sarcomeres are made of
stacks of actin and myosin
64
Phyllotaxis
leaves and buds are produced in precise arrangement
65
Potatoes are
shoots
66
stamen
male part
67
anther
where pollen is produced
68
pistil
female part has stigma style and ovary
69
within ovary
ovules, ovules = seeds ovary = fruit
70
Double fertilization
one gives embryo: sperm + egg | one gives endosperm: sperm + central cell
71
shoot system
leaf stem bud flower
72
root system
roots lateral and primary
73
what does the shoot apical meristem produce
leaves stem and axillary buds
74
modified shoots
bulbs like an onion | tubers
75
components of a leaf
blade petiole and bud
76
how are leaves polarized?
top and bottom are different because top is meant to uptake light from the sun bottom part is palisade and does gas exchange top part captures light energy this gives max photosynthetic output
77
root apical meristem forms from the
root cap
78
tap roots are like
carrots
79
where do most of our calories come from?
cereals and legumes
80
pollen tubes carry
2 sperm cells
81
3 parts of a seed and where they come from
seed coat: maternal endosperm: sperm + central cell embryo: sperm + egg
82
structure of a legume seed
root, hypocotyl, cotyledons, leaves
83
fruit is
anything that contains seeds
84
Nuts are ____
fruits in which the inner fruit wall (endocarp) is hard
85
cooking effects on food
♣ Improve digestibility- breakdown starch and other large molecules, promotes water absorption of water, making it softer ♣ Changes nutritional content- removes or inactivates toxic compounds; destroys cells, releasing their contents; increases availability of desirable nutrients ♣ Changes taste and appearance- caramelization of carbs, malliard reaction (sugar+ amino acids), protein denaturation ♣ Preservation- most microorganisms are killed by temperatures above 70 C (160F)
86
how does heat change muscle?
•Denatures protein• Destroys connective tissue• Water loss
87
what reaction browns meat?
maillard reaction sugar + amino acid
88
ways to preserve meat
salting, drying, smoking
89
how does fermentation preserve food?
lowers pH and increases alcohol
90
what develops gluten in the bread making process?
kneading produced by the interaction between glutenin and gliadin
91
what causes bread dough to rise?
yeast fermentation
92
modern wheat varieties have more _______ than standard wheat varieties
gliadin
93
what do leavenings do?
substance causing expansion of doughs and batters by the release of gases within such mixtures, producing baked products with porous structure.
94
what do emulsifiers do?
help water and oil interact
95
what do thickening agents do?
moisture control thickener is a substance which can increase the viscosity of a liquid without substantially changing its other properties
96
Phosphotidyl choline (lecithin) is ______
a natural emulsifier
97
high fructose corn syrup crystallizes t or f
f 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose • 1.3x sweeter than sucrose • 10-20% lower cost based on sweetening power
98
role of mouth and salivary glands in digestion
♣ Mechanical disruption and starch digestion
99
role of stomach in digestion
♣ Protein digestion (low pH, pepsin)
100
role of small intestine in digestion
♣ Neutralizes pH of stomach fluid ♣ Digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, using enzymes produced by the pancreas, and bile produced by the liver - most absorption occurs here
101
role of large intestine in digestion
♣ Water absorption
102
role of rectum in digestion
♣ Elimination of solid waste
103
amylases break down
starch
104
pepsinogen
•Pepsinogen is transformed into the active protease, pepsin, at an acidic pH (e.g. pH 3) •Pepsin and other proteases are most active at an acidic pH.•Proteins in food are denatured at pH 3, making them more susceptible to digestive enzymes.•Many microorganisms cannot survive in an acid environment, reducing infection.
105
female weight gain patterns
increase to 40 and then decrease
106
Pancreas cells and what they make
beta cells make insulin | alpha cells make glucagon
107
When do beta cells produce insulin?
when there is too much glucose in the blood
108
When do alpha cells produce glucagon?
when there is too little glucose in the blood
109
Diabetes types
``` • Inability to make insulin, type 1 o 10% of all cases o autoimmune disease o no beta cells so no insulin • Insensitive to insulin, type 2 o Majority o Associated with obesity • Gestational (pregnant) o Few percent o Insulin insensitive o Transient condition ```
110
______ is the central regulator of food intake
hypothalamus
111
Leptin
suppresses appetite as its levels increase produced by adipose (fat) tissue
112
Ghrelin
triggers feelings of hunger
113
Common problems caused by gastrointestinal bacteria
♣ Flatulence ♣ Gastric ulcers ♣ Crohns ♣ Colitis
114
PYY
triggered in small intestine after meals, acts as an appetite suppressant that counters the appetite stimulant ghrelin.
115
what kind of gene is the obese mutation in?
the leptin gene
116
where does fermentation occur
in the cytoplasm
117
Essential nutrients
8 amino acids 2 fatty acids 13 vitamins 18 minerals
118
Diseases resulting from vitamin/mineral deficiencies
Goiter: Iodine Pellagra: niacin (Vitamin B3) Scurvy: Vitamin C
119
1 calorie (cal)
amount of heat necessary to raise 1 ml of water, 1o C1 Calorie (Cal) = 1000 cal = 1 kcal
120
Respiratory quotient
CO2 produced/O2 consumed
121
Total Human Energy Expenditure
•Thermic effect of food ~ 10% Digesting, absorbing food •Basal metabolism~ 60-70% Breathing, sleeping, thinking •Activity energy ~ 20% Exercise
122
How much energy do we need a day?
2000-2200 calories 25 kcal/kg/day ``` ↓ in elderly ↓ with limited muscle mass ↓with obesity ↑with fidgeting ↑ in physically trained ```