midterm 1 (athranos)

Question 1

who is considered the first archaeologist; describe his motivations and studies

Answer 1

Nabonidus
final king of babylon; overthrew the last king; would renovate old temples as public good effort to appease the people
for their culture, the foundations had to be excavated first so it could be restored according to original plans
found artifacts and inscriptions
sought to understand history through material culture; daughter put his findings on display

Question 2

What is antiquarianism

Answer 2

study, collection, etc of antiquities/artifacts etc, usually focusing on material/aesthetic qualities
lacks desire to understand historical/cultural context, more just about novelty
extractive, descriptive, object focused

Question 3

what is provenience

Answer 3

something’s origin; archaeologists like to find objects in situ (in their original place) so they can understand its context

Question 4

what is a complex society

Answer 4

society characterized by developed social/economic/political organization

usually have hierarchical structures, centralized authority, and advanced economies

Question 5

define a civilization

Answer 5

a complex society involving distinct cultural, technologixal, and symbolic achievements

often have urbanization, writings systems, monumental architecture, and long lasting cultural/technological innovations

usually state level

Question 6

define state level societies

Answer 6

well defined centralized authority/governments; enforce laws, regulate resources, maintain order

Question 7

name some common features of ancient states

Answer 7

centralized authority
public monumental architecture
administrative structure
hierarchy and stratification
economic systems (taxation and currency)
cultural and legal systems (regulate behaviour and define values; some explicitly stated eg mesopotamian moral codes)
formal record keeping and science/math/writing
state level institutionalized religion
military organization

Question 8

what is the difference between a city state and a territorial stae

Answer 8

city state influence is focused on one city, some influence on hinterlands (often for agriculture and trade of things they can’t get on their own)
territorial states are larger with many cities and regions under a central government; cities are largely political and administrative, rural areas give resources and labour

Question 9

what is the urban revolution theory and who championed it

Answer 9

championed by V Gordon Childe
seeks to explain rise of states through emergence of specialists
invention of metallurgy led to rise in specialists
would live in cities and rely on food from hinterland farmers
need central authority to control politics/economy, forming a class based society

Question 10

whar are the issues with Childe’s theory

Answer 10

V Gordon Childe’s theory of urban revolutions doesn’t fully explain state formation
craft specialization exists in more egalitarian societies too
craft specialization is more of a symptom/effect than a cause of state formation

Question 11

what is the fertile crescent hypothesis and who proposed it

Answer 11

proposed by James Henry Breasted
fertility in Nile/Euphates floodplains is a primary factor of state formation in the area
annual flooding brought new silt and water, so soil was fertile; creates surplus food which can support economic exchange, wealth accumulation, and specialized labour

Question 12

what is the hydraulic hypothesis and who proposed it

Answer 12

proposed by Karl Wittfogel
claims irrigation led to central authority
dry river valleys need organized groups to manage irrigation and redistribute surplus
voluntary submission due to important role
authority expands control eg to trade
can divert water to their fields to get surplus and trade for prestige goods
authority becomes despotic

Question 13

what is the coercive hypothesis and who proposed it

Answer 13

proposed by Robert Carniero
land is limited; farmland circumscribed (surrounded by barriers like desert, mountains, sea etc)
settle on fertile land until it is taken up
when population grows, only option to expand is take land from neighboring groups
conquered groups assimilated, creating lower classes
rulers increase agricultural production via expansion and technological development to support intensive agriculture

Question 14

what are some issues with the coercive hypothesis for state formation

Answer 14

not all states emerge in circumscribed environments; some in open/expansive areas
unclear if warfare is primary cause of state formation

Question 15

what are proposed as the three major sources of power in ancient states? describe each

Answer 15

Economic power: create/manage specialized workforce, division of labour, prestige good exchange requiring organization, record keeping, and supervision

Social power: power over symbols that promote cultural/political unity; religious sites and plazas in cities for ceremonies; rituals show place as keepers of cosmic order; legitimize authority

political power: administrative and military authority; ensure security for subjects; maintain state

Question 16

what is the dynamic model

Answer 16

coined by Joyce Marcus
repetitive cycles of state consolidation, expansion, and dissolution
argued that unitary states last ~200 years, hard to maintain unequal structures for a long time
tldr, cycles of states rising, expanding, and collapsing

Question 17

what is a chalcolithic culture

Answer 17

copper age culture (chalcolithic means use of copper)

Question 18

what were early settlements like on the mesopotamian floodplain before city states

Answer 18

hunter gatherer populations; some farmers settled along rivers; obtained copper ore and obsidian from Anatolia (modern turkey)

Question 19

what were the phases of Chalcolithic development on the mesopotamian floodplains (6500-4200 BC)

Answer 19

Halaf phase
Hassuna phase
Samarra phase
Ubaid phase

Question 20

describe the Halaf/Halafian phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics

Answer 20

6000-5400 BC
occured in northwest; northern foothills/uplands in Iraq/Syria
developed from indigenous hunter gatherers
characterized by Tholoi; key shaped mud-brick architecture for many purposes
early figures, painted pottery and art; stamp seals to mark ownership (suggests specialization)
rain fed agriculture (no irrigation)

Question 21

describe the Hassuna phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics)

Answer 21

6500-5900 BC; overlaps in both area and time with Samarra phase
further south than the Halaf phase; in dry plains (less rain)
first farmers in northern plain; moved from mountains into foothills then settled river valleys where they used simple irrigation
small villages/hamlets; mud walled buildings with open courtyards
simpler pottery than Halaf
baking ovens and sickles for harvesting grain

Question 22

describe the Samarra phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics)

Answer 22

6500-5900 BC; shares time and space with Hassuna
first evidence of large scale canal irrigation at Choga Mami site; implies organized labour and settled, organized culture
Tell es-Sawwan site; multi roomed mud brick buildings surrounded by wall, T shaped buildings for storage and burials
first uniform pottery style traded widely; geometric designs with dark colours on light background
imported gemstones, copper, obsidian

Question 23

describe the Ubaid phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics)

Answer 23

6000-4200 BC
laid foundation for later mesopotamian civilizations
divided into 6 subphases, from phase 0 to 5
in phase 0, first farmers settled southern plain and establish villages with multi room rectangular mud brick houses
two tiered settlement hierarchy; large sites more than 10 hectares and small sites less than 1 hectare
specialized craftspeople, but most are farmers
begin temple institution and expansion of irrigation agriculture

Question 24

describe Ubaid 0

Answer 24

initial phase of Ubaid period, overlapping with Samarra culture
contains earliest site in southern mesopotamia, Tell el Oueili ~6000 BC
environment marshy; exploited fish, birds, reeds, etc
farmers in river valleys who used irrigation
simplest of Ubaid pottery; black paint of buff ware

Question 25

describe Ubaid 1

Answer 25

~4500 BC rapid urbanization via irrigation and plough farming Eridu: early urban settlement Ubaid culture expands from Eridu to northern plain and around persian gulf to Oman, a copper source 2 tiered; Eridu, and smaller towns/villages copper agricultural tools, sailing for trade and transport unwalled settlements (not protecting from outside threats)

Question 26

who is Ea

Answer 26

aka Enki; Eridu's patron god; 'lord of sweet waters that flow under the earth'; credited in creation story with founding of Eridu & thus civilization said to be 1st of 5 cities before great flood

Question 27

what is Eridu and why is it important

Answer 27

one of the first urban settlements; represents urbanization in Ubaid 1

Question 28

what was the role of temple institutions in mesopotamia

Answer 28

housed city patron gods, home of religious authority; land holders and employers

Question 29

describe Eridu's temple

Answer 29

constructed on large raised platform dedicated to Enki built in phases with each being larger and higher residences around it for priests and priestesses temples controlled water rights; controlled irrigation systems priests/priestesses managed surplus production and used it to get prestige goods

Question 30

describe the major changes in the Uruk Revolution

Answer 30

1st true cities and city states emerge writing developed wheeled vehicles invented craft specialization refined trade networks expand centralized religious and secular control with clear social hierarchy

Question 31

what is a tell

Answer 31

artificial mounds on the plain; remains of mesopotamian cities formed from buildup and collapse of mud-brick buildings and city garbage

Question 32

describe Uruk (city)

Answer 32

the world's first true city; 40k-80k at peak in Uruk period top level of 4 tiered settlement hierarchy (cities, towns, villages, hamlets) patron gods wereIshtar/Inanna, goddess of love, war and ripening crops, and Anu, god of the sky two temple complexes; Anu Ziggurat with White Temple, and Eanna Precinct initially was 2 settlements with their own patron deities; merged into one city

Question 33

what is the Eanna District

Answer 33

dedicated to goddess Inanna/Ishtar evidence of planning in layout of buildings, courtyards, etc earliest evidence of cuneiform writing important throughout sumerian culture found in Uruk

Question 34

what is the Anu Ziggurat

Answer 34

stepped platform pyramid with White Temple on top; large labour (80k person days) and need centralized authority to make built of limestone white temple decorated with clay cone mosaics authority reflected in size of ziggurat dedicated to Anu, in Uruk

Question 35

why were temples and ziggurats built so large

Answer 35

size reflected power of authority could represent stairways to and from heaven for people and gods to meet visible over long distance on flat floodplains

Question 36

describe the new authorities of Uruk and their depictions

Answer 36

government organization began to include secular rulers king called Ensi, meaning Lord of the Plowland commanded tribute in labour and surplus, responsible for giving offerings to city patron gods/goddesses, who represented city at council of the gods depicted as male with long hair and beard, net skirt and headband, often subduing enemies and taking prisoners women not depicted as leaders

Question 37

how did priests in Uruk divine the future; other roles

Answer 37

divine future through dreams and reading entrails of sacrificed animals record keeping of sacrifices, divinations, and following events held secular ruler in check

Question 38

describe the stages of the evolution of writing in mesopotamia

Answer 38

stage 1: notation systems in neotlithic (~7000 BC) with baked clay tokens in 16 shapes (eg spheres, pyramids, cubes, animals, pottery jars), ~4000 BC variety explodes to 300 forms w/ markings for detailed records (mostly in temples) stage 2: post 3500 BC, many tokens encased in clay bullae, impressed with outline of tokens before sealed (incised if shape doesn't impress well); likely represent one transaction; X rays show the contents don't always correspond with impressions stage 3: shift to tablets ~3000-2000 BC; 80% in Uruk were economic eg profession lists; early tablets had pictographic designs, later syllabic, soon replaced with cuneiform ~3100 BC

Question 39

describe the sumerian early dynastic period

Answer 39

2900-2350 BC beginning of historical period; rise of southern sumerian city states (sumer in south, akkad in north) written records extend past economic administration to king lists, literature, poetry

Question 40

describe the political organization of ancient sumer

Answer 40

divided into ~20 city states, each with a major city and temple, with surrounding territory in 4 tiered settlement hierarchy ruled by kings in hereditary dynasties; temple institution still important

Question 41

describe the urban form of sumerian city states

Answer 41

defensive brick wall, central temple and palace; rest of cities divided into neighbourhoods partially by occupation often faced onto river (harbour or quay) mud-brick houses, multistoried with central courtyard rural settlements decline as city size increased

Question 42

describe Nippur and its relevance

Answer 42

city at juncture of Sumer and Akkad; seat of worship of Enlil, the sumerian wind god and 'god of the gods'; most sacred center controlling it was fundamental to legitimacy of sumerian kings; control meant the king was the 'king of kings', example of god world mirroring earthly world

Question 43

where was lapis lazuli sourced from for the mesopotamians

Answer 43

afghanistan

Question 44

where was obsidian and chert sourced from for the mesopotamian

Answer 44

anatolia (turkey)

Question 45

what goods did mesopotamians get from the persian gulf

Answer 45

copper, dates, pearls

Question 46

what goods did mesopotamians get from southern arabia

Answer 46

steatite (soapstone), diorite, copper

Question 47

what goods did mesopotamians get from the indus valley

Answer 47

carnelian (red stone used for jewelery), gaming dice, figurines (indus valley loved hatsune miku)

Question 48

where did mesopotamians get soapstone bowls from in trade

Answer 48

iranian plateau

Question 49

describe the royal cemetery at Ur

Answer 49

~2500 burials most simple pit graces; deceased wrapped in mats/placed in wooden coffins; practices for everyday people 16 were royal burials; lavish grave goods like gold bowls, a lyre with a bull's head, and a gold necklace; brick/stone chambers, human sacrifices shows social stratification human sacrifices not found in burials after early dynastic period

Question 50

what is prince meskalamdug known for

Answer 50

royal burial at Ur; tomb filled with gold, objects bearing his name and title of king buried with gold helmet with ears and hair depicted in gold, sheet metal mask for face; musical instruments, model boats, games

Question 51

describe queen puabi

Answer 51

queen buried in Ur royal cemetary stone chamber at bottom of shaft sealed in stone vault placed on wooden bier with a cloak of lapis, cold, and carnelian beads, as well as a wig, gold bands, and 3 attendants surrounded by death pit of 59 human sacrifices, many wearing jewellery, and oxen under her tomb is a man, presumably husband, accompanied by 19 female and 2 male sacrifices, 6 oxens, chariots, musical instruments, and silver objects cause of death disputed

Question 52

describe the sumerian view of the afterlife

Answer 52

viewed as unpleasant without food or comforts; needed to bring food and gifts to give to lords of the underworld to improve situation; burial goods indicate differences in diet with elite having varied diet and workers eating barley, beer, fish

Question 53

who is sargon

Answer 53

Akkadian ruler who conquered Uruk; expanded empire making Akkadian the lingua franca of the area for 2000 years legend says he was son of a priestess of Ishtar; had him in secret and set him in a reed basket in the Euphrates; baby found, raised at court and became ruler

Question 54

who is naram-sin

Answer 54

king of akkad who claimed divinity 'king of the 4 quarters, king of the universe'; made the ruler both a spiritual and secular authority, undermining competing temple authority

Question 55

describe the rule of naram-sin

Answer 55

unclear if authority was heavily asserted over city states appointed governors/administrators of conquers city states who would implement policy, collect tax, maintain order, and ensure loyalty to empire irrigation expansion intensified akkadian empire collapsed ~100 years after his death

Question 56

describe imperial Ur

Answer 56

2112-2204 BC; after fall of Akkadian empire 3rd Ur dynasty established by king Ur-Nammu; rose to prominence as warrior king who crushed ruler of Lagash last sumerian dynasty that was a preeminent power in mesopotamia aka Neo-Sumerian empire contains earliest law codes; Ur became important port of indian ocean trade; extended influence by diplomacy and religion rather than war

Question 57

describe Ur-Nammu's law code

Answer 57

written in first person as the king, as the voice of justice for everyone including widows and orphans 2 social groups; free and slave fines compensate for injuries capital punishment for murder, robbery, adultery, and rape (punishment graded by class) basis of later law codes such as hammurabi's law code

Question 58

describe the code of hammurabi

Answer 58

babylonian law code more detailed than that of Ur's 282 laws with penalties for perjury, robbery, and murder; responsibilities for builders when houses collapse, regulations for slaves and marriage etc

Question 59

who is king shulgi

Answer 59

Ur-Nammu's son who standardized administration by appointing governors, regularizing tax and tribute payments exported wool after him, kings were not as good, empire declined

Question 60

describe the nile river

Answer 60

egypt developed in its floodplain longest river in the world with 2 major tributaries; blue nile (Lake Tana, Ethiopia), and white nile (Lake Victoria, Uganda/Tanzania/Kenya) flows north to its delta at mediterranean floods more predictable than in mesopotamia, annual and provided rich alluvium (material deposited by rivers, good for crops)

Question 61

describe the geography of ancient egypt

Answer 61

built on long, narrow oasis surrounded by desert; Kemet, meaning black land, was where they lived, the black fertile floodplain soils; Deshret meaning red land, meant desert sands

Question 62

describe the two geopolitical areas of egypt and how their crowns were represented in imagery

Answer 62

Upper and lower refer to flow of the nile, not north/south lower egypt is north at the nile river delta (where the river flows to); ta-mehu, land of the papyrus; red curled crown called deshret (shares name with desert sands) Upper egypt is south of delta to nubia; ta-shemu, land of the shemu reed; white domed crown called hedjet combined crown of both is called sekhemti

Question 63

what is the sekhemti

Answer 63

combined crown of both upper and lower egypt, having both red curled crown and red domed crown

Question 64

what is the hedjet

Answer 64

white domed crown for upper egypt (south)

Question 65

what is the deshret

Answer 65

name shared between desert sands (means red land), and the red curled crown for lower (north by delta)

Question 66

describe pre dynastic egypt

Answer 66

~5000 BC simple farming develops in nile floodplain planted crops when floods receded, grazed animals on floodplain, harvested crops before next flood copper using groups (copper ore for paint); most tools made for stone