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Mushrooms & Molds > Midterm 1 (Lectures 1-8) > Flashcards

Midterm 1 (Lectures 1-8) Flashcards

1
Q

How do fungi break down dead matter and why is this beneficial to life on Earth?

A

Fungi possess enzymes that ooze out of the fungus body and uncouple the bonds that hold organic molecules together. Then absorbed through the walls of the fungal cell.

-Plants that have been alive for a long time used alot of minerals that other plants need to servive, fungi recycle these minerals so that there is enough to go around
Fungus decompose dead plants so the debris does not crowd the earth

-Decomposes animal waste so that it does not crowd the environment

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2
Q

How did people perceive mushrooms prior to when the scientific community first began
researching fungi?

A

Viewed as work of evil spirits, witches, or the devil.

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3
Q

Are fungi plants? Are fungi animals? Why or why not?

A

Not plants-
no chlorophyll,
cannot make their own food,
food digested outside of the body then absorbed,
simple cell structure (no roots or shoots),

Not animals-
animals can move around,
do not have walls surrounding their cells
food is eating plants or one another

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4
Q

When did the fungi receive their own kingdom?

A

When Leeuwenhoek and Hook used microscopes, in the 19th century, facts made it clear that fungi were very separate from plants and animals and deserved a kingdom of there own.

Fungi kingdom created in 1784.

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5
Q

What advent allowed the classification scheme of Dr. Carl Woese to arise?

A

New technology enabled scientist to decode the genetic material that makes us all different from one another.

Woese suggest three domains where similar (humans and fungi equal partners on parallel roads)

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6
Q

What three domains did Dr. Carl Woese suggest from which the living world evolved?

A

Archaea, bacteria, eucarya

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7
Q

How do the features of the fungus body separate it from other kingdoms and domains?

A

Cells with nuclei
Walls of chitin
Heterotrophic (cannot make there own food)
No division of cells into various organs
Reproduce by way of spores (conidia)
No cross-fertilization

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8
Q

How do fungi feed, and where does digestion take place?

A

Secrete enzymes that digest food outside of the fungi body and then nutrients are absorbed.

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9
Q

How are ascospores and basidiospores produced?

A

Sexual reproduction through the fusion of tow cells through meiosis leads to 8 ascospores or 4 basidiospores

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10
Q

Why are fungi that result from sexual reproduction better pathogens?

A

Sexual reproduction allows better adaption to environmental changes because it allows outcrossing allowing adaptions such as tolerance to fungisides

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11
Q

How might the size and shape of a fungal spore help it ‘get around’?

A

very small with a flagella that helps it swim

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12
Q

What two features form the basis of classification and naming of fungi?

A
  1. The structure of reproductive bodies
  2. How spores are produced
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13
Q

Who is largely responsible for the modern taxonomic system?

A

Carolus Linnaeus

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14
Q

Who were some of the important mycologists in history, and what fungi did they study?

A

Fries- fleshy fungus (mushrooms and lichens)
Persoon- rusts and smuts (corn)
Lloyed- large fungi (puffballs)

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15
Q

Who is known as “the grand old man of mycology?”

A

Fries

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16
Q

Who created the pseudonym Professor N.J. McGinty and why?

A

Lloyed
Said that have names attached to fungus was stupid and used this false name to attach to several of the fungi that he discovered

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17
Q

** How do plant pathologists distinguish between similar species of fungi that grow on different plant hosts?

A

Forma specialis
Race

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18
Q

**What are the four major fungal phyla, and what makes them unique?

A

Chrytodiomycota (only fungi with swimming spores, predominetly in aquatic habitats)

Zygomycota (asex reproduction in clumped packets, weed-like)

Ascomycota (red mold, holes inbetween cells, asex stages are common)

Basidiomycota (mushs/puffballs/rusts/hyphea have specialized gates between cells)

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19
Q

Who are the Oomycetes?

A

Look alot like fungi,
hyphae without crosswalls,
reproduce asexually by way of zoospores and sexually by fusion of nuclei (meiosis) to produce oospores
(these are the fungi like organisms that infected potatoes and caused the potato famine)

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20
Q

Name one feature that distinguishes fungi from other multicellular organisms.

A

Virtually all growth occurs by way of elongation of hyphal tips

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21
Q

How does the use of mycotoxins and antibiotics benefit a fungus?

A

They discourage potential competitors from getting more than their share of the available food.

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22
Q

Why do fungi tend to grow in a circular fashion?

A

To maximize there chances of finding nourishment

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23
Q

How do fungi reproduce?

A

Sexually and asexually.

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24
Q

Why might fungi that reproduce sexually pose a problem to people trying to develop anti-­‐fungal
agents?

A

Because it allows for rapid evolution of new strains of a given species.

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25
Q

**Describe how a new fungus forms from a single cell.

A
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26
Q

What is a bioluminescent mushroom?

A

Chemical reactions that yield a light by-product- glow in the dark
-attracts insects that help dislodge spores

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27
Q

**How is bioluminescence advantageous for the fungus?

A
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28
Q

How might a mushroom react to being kicked over?

A

It will reorient its gills accordingly- thinner stemed mushrooms grow, the cells on the lower side of the stem grow more rapidly allowing the stem to grow upward and mantain vertical elongation

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29
Q

Explain the physical features of a meadow mushroom and how the spores are spread.

A

Gills of fungus tissue, basidiospores on spikes, basidiospores fall from the basidia and drift down between neighboring fills until they are out from under the mushroom cap and able to be blown clear off it

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30
Q

What are sclerotia, and why do fungi produce them?

A

Hyphae aggregated into a roughly sperical body with thick pigmant wallas to form a protective shell over the living tissue when weather conditions are to hot or cold.

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31
Q

How do Shaggy Manes and other Inky Caps sporulate?

A

Spores closest to the outside of the gills are wisked away, then enzymes degest the used tissue, which drips away as slimy black liquid, exposing the new generation of spores.

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32
Q

How are sexual spores of Ascomycetes often released?

A

Ascomycetes have packs of eight spores in sacs. When water pressure from within the cap builds up the tips of the sacs give away and the spores are shot up into the air.

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33
Q

How large is an average fungal spore? How does this affect their dispersal?

A

Very small- can stay aloft for a very long time.

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34
Q

What are two survival strategies used by fungi to increase the odds of successful spore dispersal?

A
  1. Produce large numbers of spores
  2. Are very small
  3. Airborn spors have thick cell walls to keep vital contents from drying out
  4. Dark pigmant to shild from damaging untraviolet light
  5. Some have spiny cell walss that keep them clumped together (safetly in numbers)
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35
Q

**What characteristics allow some airborne spores to remain aloft indefinitely?

A
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36
Q

**Describe a couple of ways that water is used as a means of dispersal.

A
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37
Q

How might fungi attract animals to spread their spores?

A

Smell attracts insects (like carrying beetles) that fly in and pick up spores and moves spores to knew place to so that fungi can start a new life.

Looks - Makes plant produce a fungal pseudo-flower

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38
Q

Why is the cannonball fungus a problem for homeowners?

A

-Sticky cannon balls
-You have to strip your house
-Fires spore mass up in the air (up to 14 feet)

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39
Q

How do swimming spores get around?

A

Whipping action of two filaments that extend from the spores

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40
Q

Where did Spanish explorers first find the potato?

A

South America- andes Mountains- Icas- peru

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41
Q

Why did Irish peasants favor the potato in the 1800s?

A

Because they were easy to grow (cut up an eye and plant it) had enough nutritional value to raise strong happy families, can grow on small plots of land.

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42
Q

Why weren’t potatoes accepted in Europe when Spanish explorers first brought them back?

A

They (including Queen Elizebeth) were eating the leafs of potatoes not the roots which caused indigestion.

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43
Q

What happened to Ireland’s population between 1800 and 1845?

A

The population nearly doubled from 4.5 to 8 million people

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44
Q

Why wasn’t everyone enthusiastic about the potato’s newfound importance?

A

Because it was the only food in Iraland
All the land was being used to produce potatos

45
Q

In 1845, Dr. Lindley described the symptoms displayed by infected potato crops. How did he describe the disease and its progression?

A

“a fatal malady” Leaves and stems dicay (black spot on edge of leaves which spreads) Bad odor

46
Q

Why were Irish peasants particularly ‘hit hard’ when potato plants began to decay?

A

Potatoes were there only source of food

47
Q

Explain Anton de Bary’s theory of the cause of the potato blight.

A

Said it was a fungus. He called it P. infestans and said it spent the winter as dormant haphae in previously rotted tubers that spread into the cull piles, spores blew in wind and if they landed on wet potato plants there capsuled would rupture

48
Q

How did the weather contribute to the potato blight in 1845-­‐1846?

A

It was very cool and wet

49
Q

What other diseases affected the people that did not die of starvation and how many lives did they claim?

A

Other diseases such as typhus, dysentery , and cholera

50
Q

In 1846, Irish import laws were relaxed and the United States provided the nation with corn. Why
was this generous gift greeted with such little enthusiasm?

A

Proud Irish people were loathe to receive free handouts of “chicken feed”

51
Q

Why weren’t Irish immigrants welcome in North America in the years following the Irish Potato
Famine?

A

Because they were poor, diseased, and know for having ill tempers

52
Q

In an effort to determine what the cause of the famine was, the starving Irish laid blame to a number of interesting ‘causes’. What did they think were the ‘causes’ of the Famine?

A

‘little people’, static electricity gereated in the atmosphere by smoke emitted from new called locomotives, ‘mortiferous vapours’, ‘miasmas (clouds of infected air) rising from blind volcanoes

53
Q

How did the social upheaval caused by the Irish Potato Famine impact world history, especially in
the United States?

A

40 million Americans claim as least partial Irish ancestry, Catholic Church has become a major forse in North America since, Given rise to some of the best American football

54
Q

The Irish were not the only ones to have problems with the fungus-­‐like organism that caused the Irish Potato Famine. What similar issue occurred in Germany in the city?

A

Kaiser ordered all surplus crops to the cities for safe-keeping- stored in warm, humid basements and infected by the fungus-like organism.

55
Q

How did the fungus-­‐like organism that caused the Irish Potato Famine help the United States win World War I?

A

This loss of food weakend the German and helped Allies to victory in the war

56
Q

What aspect of P. infestans made it easily controllable by farmers and scientists? What means of control did the agricultural community employ against the potato blight?

A

It can only produce asexually so fungisides were affective

57
Q

In 1984, a compatible ‘mate’ of the organism that caused the Irish Potato Famine was discovered.
Why was this discovery so important and what new crop was threatened?

A

Now the P. infestans could develope a second strain that was resistant to fungisides. The tomato was now an effected crop as well

58
Q

What began appearing on Mr. Tucker’s grape vines and fruit?

A

A powdery white substance- gave off moldy smell - caused young grapes to shrival or die, older grapes to rott. “powdery mildew”

59
Q

The use of what element made powdery mildew manageable by 1855?

A

Sulfur

60
Q

** Where did the grape disease most likely come from and where was it spread?

A
61
Q

How did Professor Millardet discover the Bordeaux Mixture, and what was it composed of?

A

A farmer in the area would spray copper sulfate and lime on his grapes to prevent people from picking them as they walked by his crops

62
Q

Why has Bordeaux Mixture enjoyed renewed popularity in recent years?

A

Used by organic gardeners use it as an acceptable natural pesticide

63
Q

How were ginger snaps first created?

A

A man in England was faced with a shipment of fungal-infected grey, foul smelling flour and added molasses and a pungent smelling spice from India to cover up the looks and the smell of the smutted wheat

64
Q

What role does the barberry plant play in “The Rust of the Story”?

A

Barberry leaves are cross-fertilization sites of P. graminis and therefore sites of rapid evolution of new races of rust- this sets the stage for serious crop losses and higher food prices

65
Q

Hermann Merkel, the chief forester at the New York City Zoological Park, described a disease that ravaged certain trees in the park. What is this disease, what tree does it infect, and what does the disease do to its host?

A

98 % of chestnut trees in parks are infected by a fungus that causes the disease ‘chestnut blight’. Kills cells in bark that would normally carry food made in the leaves to other parts of the tree. Destroyed cells needed to carry water and nutrients from the roots to the top

66
Q

Why was the American chestnut tree so useful?

A

raw material for indoor and outdoor construction (easy to work with and resistant to decay), nuts were an important source of food for wildlife, East coast sale of nuts provided many families with only source of income

67
Q

What is the name for the diseased regions on branches or stems?

A

cankers

68
Q

Why can’t young chestnut trees grow and thrive in areas devastated by Chestnut Blight?

A

As trees were killed the surviing roots provided additional sprouts that would kill the roots in five years

69
Q

What factors contributed to the overwhelming proliferation of Chestnut Blight in the early 1900’s?

A

The hypovirulent strains don’t produce very many spores, thus limiting their ability to spread to new sites; and when hyphae of a hypovirulent strain meet those of an aggressive one the two dont readily grow together, thus there is no quick way to transfer viruses

70
Q

What are some ways that scientists tried to combat the Chestnut Blight? Where they successful and
why or why not?

A

Breeding blight resistant oriental chestnuts with american chestnuts in hopes of getting hybrids that looked like American chestnuts but were resistant. These trees grew low bushy growth and do not survive in cooler climate

71
Q

** Dr. Hudler quotes a prophetic poem by Robert Frost that ends in the lines:
i. Till another parasite
ii. Shall come and end the blight
b. Describe the “parasite” of the Chestnut Blight.

A

Dutch Elm disease?

72
Q

Dr. Hudler talks about Dutch Elm disease, a disease caused by a fungus that devastated elms in Holland from 1918-­‐1919. Name the pest that interacts with this fungus, and describe the role this pest plays.

A

Elm bark beetles law eggs in dead elm, larvae hatch and feed on tree, when they emerge from tree they are covered in spores, fly to healthy trees and infect them

73
Q

How does Dutch Elm disease kill its host?

A

The hyphae live in the tubular cells (make up outermost wood of elm trees), cause cell to become plugged with chemicals of both fungus and host origin. The tree eventually runs out of ways to get water and nutrients from the roots to the top and it dies

74
Q

What are the visible symptoms of Dutch elm disease and from where is the disease suspected to have been introduced?

A

Leaves droop and turn yellow, then turn brown and die, then large branches die, and most trees are completely dead within two years. Brown ring of discolored wood in the outer most portion of branch (just beneath the bark) (this is evidence that plugging of cells has occured).

75
Q

Dr. Hudler lists many effective disease management strategies for Dutch Elm disease. Describe two
of these management strategies.

A

-Sanitation- removal and burial of dead or dying elms- to prevent spread through beetles
-Timely application of insecticides- protection of tree against beetles (spraying is looked down upon, injections sometimes work, but spraying is most reliable)

76
Q

How are tree breeders attempting to deal with this disease?

A

Trying to develop disease resistant American elms as well as European and Oriental hybrids

77
Q

Many of the tree pathogens mentioned in this chapter did not originate in America. How did these tree pathogens get here, and how can we prevent introduction of new exotic pathogens in the future?

A

Introduction of disease through plant materials from other parts of the world

78
Q

What disease attacks white pines in North America and what were the consequences of the blight?

A

Cronartium ribicola- white pine in the noreatern US and southeastern Canada is now rarely managed for commercial timber production. Wester white pine sited in Montana and Idaho have also sustained significant losses.

79
Q

Describe beech bark disease and how the two major components work together to decimate beech
trees. Where did the disease come from?

A

The fungus and the insect both introduced from Europe

80
Q

Dr. Hudler discusses a disease that does not harm trees, but alarms homeowners nonetheless.
What is this disease, and what does it do to the tree?

A

tar spot of maples- forms large black spots with bright yellow margins on the leaves of its host, Norway maple- causes premature defoliation

81
Q

What fungus started attacking our state tree (the dogwood) in the 1980s?

A

Dogwood anthracnose

82
Q

5 step International Code of Botanical Nomenclature

A
  1. Each species has only one valid name
  2. First description must be in Latin
  3. Name for sexual stage has priority
  4. Earliest published description has priority
  5. First citation must have author’s name
83
Q

Each fungus may have two names. How are they determined?

A

-One of sexual stage (fruiting body) *most important stage (has priority when naming)
-One for asexual stage (mycelium)
-Sometimes only one stage is produced (many fungi have lost the ability to have sex) (in these cases the asexual name becomes our only means of identification)

84
Q

Fungus responsible for killing amphibians

A

Batrachochytrium Ddendrobatids (BD)

85
Q

What disease does Batrachochytrium Ddendrobatids (BD) cause in amphibians

A

Cytridiomycosis

86
Q

What part of the frog does Cytridiomycosis effect? and how?

A

-Keratin in frogs (concentrated around mouth, feet and hands)
-Fungus have interest in the Keratin and starts attacking these keratin-rich parts of the frogs
-Frogs breathe through there thin epidermis
-When fungus attacks the frogs bulk up there skin
-This makes then impermeable to water and the frog dies

87
Q

What was responsible for the increase of amphibians dying from Cytridiomycosis? What is the aftermath?

A

Global warming-
-Without frogs eating insects- insect born disease has increased

88
Q

The Honey Mushroom

A

(Armillaria gallica)
-Found in Crystal Falls, Michigan
-About 37 acres in size = 40 football fields
-At least 1500 years old
-Weighs 100 tons = blue whale
-Scientist put popsicle sticks all through the forest
-Fungus would colonize on the popsicle sticks
-Used these as samples of mycelium and fruiting bodies
-DNA fingerprinting

89
Q

How can this fungus get so big?

A

-Specialized hyphae produced by fungi
-Hardened exterior (similar to a plant root)
-They transport food and minerals over long distances
-Act as ‘scouts’ looking for nutrient rich areas

90
Q

Humongous fungus

A

-Fair in Crystal Fall, Michigan
-Letterman’s Top ten facts about the humongous fungus
-In Washington they found a larger one
-The in Oregon another bigger one is found

91
Q

What Fungus is even bigger then the honey mushroom?

A

-Armillaria ostoyae
-pathogen of conifers
-Malheur National Forest in Eastern Oregon
-3.5 miles- 1665 football fields
-At least 2400 years old

92
Q

Phylum Basidiomycota

A

-Mushroom, puffballs, smuts, and rusts
-Dolipore septa- specialized ‘gates’ between Hyphae cells
-Sexual reproduction: fusion of nuclei followed by meiosis to produce four basidiospores
-Asexual reproduction is rare, prefer sexual reproduction
-Decay organic matter
-Cause diseases in plants and animals
-Form symbiotic relationships with higher plants

93
Q

The specialized gates of funi in the phylum basidiomycota

A

Dolipore septa

94
Q

In the 1930’s great depression what two scientist made scientific advances and what were they?

A

-George Beadle and Edward Tatum asked, “what are genes and how do they work?”
-Made ‘one gene one enzyme hypothesis’ (today simplified to ‘one gene one polypeptide’)
-Won the Nobel prize in 1958

95
Q

What mold did Beadle and Tatum work with? What experiments were preformed?

A

-The red bread mold (neurospora crassa) -Sent x-rays through to mutate DNA

96
Q

What phylum with the red bread mold in?

A

ascomycota
-Cup fungi, morels, truffles animals and plant pathogens
-Hyphae have specialized ‘holes’ between cells
-Produce ascospores in sacs, usually produce 8 of them (ascus, asci)
-Asexual stages are common (conidia)

97
Q

The Ice Man’s Fungus

A

(Fomes fomentarius)
-Linked to the ice man (Ice mummy 5,000 years old)
-He was carrying this fungi with him
-Is dry and can start a fire

98
Q

What fungi takes advantage of smell?

A

-Stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus)
-Produces an odor of rotting flesh
-Look like a chicken egg (fruiting body and spores inside with spores that push up out of the egg)
-Smell attracts insects (like carrying beetles) that fly in and pick up spores and moves spores to knew place to so that fungi can start a new life

99
Q

What fungi takes advantage of looks?

A

-Puccinia monoica
-Makes plant produce a fungal pseudo-flower
-This flower attracts butterflies and makes it more difficult for real flowers to get pollinated

100
Q

What fungi takes advantage of force?

A

-The cannonball fungus (Sphaerobolus stellatus)
-Sticky cannon balls
-You have to strip your house
-Fires spore mass up in the air (up to 14 feet)

101
Q

What fungi takes advantage of productivity?

A

-The more spores produced the better chance of getting somewhere
-The artist’s conk (ganoderma applanatum)
-Can produce 350,000 spores per second

102
Q

What fungi takes advantage of light?

A

-Mycena species
-Glow in the dark
-Attract the Fungus gnats

103
Q

What fungi takes advantage of winds?

A

Gibberella Zeae
-Produces very small micro fruiting bodies
-Grows on corn stalks or wheat plants
-Fire spores into the air that travel a few mm and are swept up into the air and travel long distances
-Can cause two different diseases
-Head blight of wheat
-Ear rot of corn
-Blowin’ in the wind - bob Dylan

104
Q

Francisco Pizarro

A

-1531 (peru)
-Spanish conquistador
-Captured Atahualpa (13 emperor of the Incas)
-Made Atahualpa convert to Catholicism and then hung him

105
Q

Irland in the 1950’s

A

Potato famine
-Caused an estimated 1.5 million people to starve to death
-2 million people left the country, many to north America

106
Q

Who descovered that cull piles of potatoes were being infected by the fungus like organism

A

Anton DeBary (the father of plant pathology)
-plytophthora infestan (it is a chromista - not a fungus because in does not have any chitin, it has cellulose, and its spores have two flagella)(disease called Late plight of potato)

107
Q

A bright yellow or sticky orange slime mold in its fruiting stage. Can appear over-night

A

The dog vomit slime mold

108
Q

Name and Author of book?

A

Magical mushrooms, mischievous molds- George w. Hudler

Mushrooms & Molds (1 decks)

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