Midterm 1 Slides Flashcards
1
Q
-The development of the computer in the 1950s and 1960s had a strong influence on psychology and led to the rapid emergence of Cognitive Psychology
-The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor comparing human mental processing to the manner in which a computer operates.
-Cognitive Psychology treats the mind as an information-processing machine
-Valuable strategy, but not perfect
A
Rise of Cognitivism
2
Q
Incoming information——>Sensory memory —–> Working Memory—-> Long-Term Memory
A
Cognitive Model of Human Processing
(describes intellectual funtioning)
3
Q
Treating the mind as a symbolic information processor has its limitations
-Emotion and motivation often left out or underrepresented in cognitive models of intellectual functioning
-Cognitivism
A
Limitations of Cognitivism
4
Q
Human thinking is fully objective, mechanical, rational, and cold
A
Cognitivism
5
Q
Why did Kasparov win?
-Motivation to win
- Emotional Capacity to feel
Adaptive/Self-Regulation
-Flexible learning
-Self-Correction
(Human thinking is adaptive, grows and learns over time)
A
Limitation 1 of Cognitivism
6
Q
Cognitivism models are often described to have performance limits or constraints
-Miller’s Law
-In real, levels of intellectual functioning are typically not an invariant property of a cognitive system, but depend on one’s emotional states
-Kasparov mentioned he was ‘energized’ by the high-stakes game and associated pressure
(Human thinking begins in an intimate association with emotion and feelings which is never entirely lost)
A
Limitation 2 of Cognitivism
7
Q
-Cognitive models do not incorporate subjective experience, consciousness, intentionality and reflectivity
-People not only feel, strive, and know, but also know, and can anticipate further feeling, striving and knowing
-People monitor and reflect upon their own experience, knowledge, and mental functioning in past, present, and future tenses
(Inability to include human phenomenological (ie subjective) experiences as a legitimate (and often essential) for higher-order mental functions)
A
Limitation 3 of Cognitivism
8
Q
How affect and motivation support or impede higher mental functions at the brain level
A
Neurobiological level (better perspectives of intellectual functioning)
9
Q
Various motivational, emotional and cognitive constructs, such as surprise, volition, intention, expectancy, planning are incorporated in cognitive models of human thinking and behavior
A
Behavioral level (better perspectives of intellectual functioning)
10
Q
A person’s subjective conscious experiences, including bodily sensations and mental images and other perceptions and cognitions such as desired outcomes, current concerns, intentionally and the self are incorporated in cognitive models on human thinking
A
Phenomenological level (better perspectives of intellectual functioning)
11
Q
Knowledge=Cognition
Feeling-Emotion/Affect
Desire=Motivation
A
Three absolutely irreducible faculties of the mind (Immanuel Kant)
12
Q
-Cognition: Thoughts and reasoning related to information processing
-Emotion: Feelings such as anger and happiness that signal emotional relationships
Motivation: Urges and desires that direct the individual
A
Trilogy of the Mind
13
Q
Urges and desires that direct the individual (need or drive for fulfillment)
-Biological (Primary ie Hunger/Thirst)
-Social (Secondary ie Achievement)
-Personal (ie Habits)
A
Motivation
14
Q
The desire to achieve some goal. Sometimes inspired by observing others being successful
A
Achievement Motive
15
Q
The motive to react aggressively when faced frustrations such as being obstructed from reaching a goal
A
Agressive Motive
16
Q
The need to have an impact on and influence others
A
Power Motive
17
Q
The need for acquisition of material property (money or goods)
A
Acquisitive Motive
18
Q
The drive to explore and know new things
A
Curiosity Motive
19
Q
The need for affiliation and a tendency to associate oneself with other members of a group
A
Gregariousness Motive
20
Q
Habits act as drivers and compel the person to perform the act. They motivate the individual to indulge in that action automatically
A
Habit Motive
21
Q
Broad goals (goals that last over a long period of time) that motivate the individual to act and fufill
A
Life Goals
22
Q
The effort one is willing to put into reaching a goal. Aspirations also define experienced satisfaction upon goal fulfillment (individual differences)
A
Aspirations
23
Q
Describes the individual differences in what motivate us. Different individuals are differently motivated
A
Attitudes and Interests
24
Q
Concerns behavior driven by intrinsic desires. The motivation to engage behavior that comes from within the individual rather than from without
A
Intrinsic Motivation
25
Refers to behavior that is driven by external rewards or punishment. Can be both rewards-based and fear-based
Extrinsic Motivation
26
CET is designed to explain the effects of extrinsic factors on intrinsic motivation
The theory postulates that:
-Extrinsic rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation
-Extrinsic reward decrease overall motivation (initially defined by intrinsic motivation)
-Caused by a loss of autonomy due to the introduction of external factors
-'Locus of control' goes from internal to external
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
27
-Prize condition(winners and losers)
-No-Prize Condition (winners and losers)
-Prized winners reported lower enjoyment
-Attributed their win to the external factor of rewards changing the perceived autonomy and locus of control
-This in turn reduced internal motivation and reduced perceived enjoyment
Evidence for CET: Team Building exercise study
28
-Teaching 24 girls (12-13 years) that weren't exposed to track and field
-10 week course
-Perceived Autonomy Perceived Competence and Intrinsic Motivations (IM) measured after each sessions
-Two different teaching style: 'Direct' and 'Differentiated'
Evidence for CET: Teaching Track and Field
29
- A differentiated teaching style led to higher intrinsic motivation
-Higher intrinsic motivation was associated with an increased perceived autonomy
-Likewise perceived competence led to higher IM scores
-Evidenced for locus of control CET explanation (When involved in decision making and when self-reported competence is higher, intrinsic motivation increases.
Results for Teaching Track and Field Study
30
-Some studies have found changes in intrinsic motivation without changes in perceived locus of control and perceived confidence
-One study found that college student rewarded with money after a task reported internal attributions of control
-Another study found that participants preferred to replay games in which they previously experienced high suspense but low perceived competence over games in which which previously experienced high perceived competence but low suspense
Evidence Against the CET
31
-Qualitatively difference motivational frameworks, driven by people's beliefs and goals, that affect basic attentional and cognitive processes
-Not a singular construct
-Interacts with cognition in a varying manner, changing intellectual functioning depending on the motivational framework applied by an individual
Current View on Motivation
32
The goal of validating one's ability through one's performance
-The goal of looking smart, not dumb
-Aka 'achievement goals'
Performance goal
33
The goal of increasing one's ability
-The goal of getting smarter
Learning Goal
34
When students that intelligence is a is a fixed trait, it becomes critical to validate their fixed ability through their performance
Entity Theory of Intelligence
35
When students that intellectual skills can increase through their effort they become less concerned with how their abilities might be evaluated now, and more concerned with cultivating their abilities in the longer term
Incremental theory of intelligence
36
-Junior high school students were taught a challenging new unit
-Prior to the start of the unit students were assessed on their performance goals and learning goals
-unit dealt with scientific principles that cut across several types of problems
-Students were trained on one type of problem
-Were given a transfer test to see if the could apply the same principle to another type of problem
-To what extent does newly learning knowledge transfer when students set either PGs or LGs
Motivational Effects on Cognitive Strategies Study 1
37
Students with LGs vs PGs
-Both learned the initial material equally well but students with learning goals
-Produced significantly more written work during their attempts to transfer
-Tried more difference transfer strategies
-Were more successful in transferring the learned principles to the new task
Results of Motivational Effects on Cognitive Strategies Study 1
38
-Researches instilled different goals in late grade-school students as the embarked on a challenging concept-formation task
-The task was set up such that research could study rapid-changes in student's problem solving 'sophistication'
-They got more difficult as it progressed
-Half of children were led to believe that they had high ability and would probably do well on the upcoming task
-Half the children were led to believe they had lower ability at the task
Motivational Effects on Cognitive Strategies Study 2
39
-Students with learning goals versus performance goals:
-Both groups of students initially were equally good at solving the problems but as the problems became more difficult:
-Students with learning goals were able to maintain or even improve their problem- solving strategies over the failure trials, regardless of whether they believed that had high or low ability at the task
-Unless students believed that had high ability those with performance goals showed a steep decline in the sophistication of their problem-solving strategies over the failure trials
Results of Motivational Effects on Cognitive Strategies Study 2
40
Students with learning goals reported engaging in deeper processing of educational learning materials (outlining materials summarizing, integrating information over units
-Predicative of higher grades
Do people with learning goals approach learning materials differentially?
41
METHODS:
-Late grade-school students succeded on the first set of moderately difficult problems of a non verbal test
-Though the type of praise they were given, students were oriented towards learning goals or performance goals
-The students were then faced with much more difficult problems
RESULTS
-Those oriented toward learning goals performed better on the difficult problems
-Those oriented toward learning goals carried over their benefit to a third set of problems (ie equivalent in difficulty to the first set)
-LG students did significantly better than PG students on the third set as well.
-Those with performance goals after encountering difficulty, performed worse on the third set than they had on the first
Do learning goals influence over existing intellectual abilities?
42
Coping mechanism that ensures goals are met and is responsible for directing for attention toward goal- relevant information and away from goal-irrelevant theory
Executive control network
43
-Selective attention leads to facilitated processing of information
-This normally leads to observable differences (faster reaction times, higher accuracy, deeper processing)
-Entity Theory/Performance goals (Ability-relevant feedback) focus on different info than incremental theory/Learning goals (Learning-relevant feedback)
-Focusing attention on information underlying these different theories/goals, may lead to observable differences in behavior and underlying mental processes
Logic Behind Attentional Experiments (Electrophysiological Approach)
44
Connected with students from an elite university and was concerned with:
-the issue of why African American students with strong academic skills nonetheless underperform in such settings
-Whether providing these students with an incremental theory about their intelligence would prove beneficial
METHODS:
African American and Caucasian participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups
-Group 1: Received training in incremental theories were randomly assigned to one of three groups
-Group 2(control) Received no training
-Group 3 (control): Taught the idea that intelligence leads to different abilities that one should mot worry if not successful in one ability...there are always others
(not incremental)
Educational Interventions (Study)
45
Predictions:
-Both set of students should benefit from training on incremental theory by AA students more so
-Due to being more often the object of negative stereotypes concerning intellectual ability
-Stereotype Threat
-Entity Theory would emphasize this
-Incremental Theory may diffuse threat by portraying skills as acquirable over time making threat less potant
Predictions of Educational Interventions (Study)
46
In terms of academic performance:
-The two control groups did not differ and the group receiving the incremental intervention looked significantly better than both
-Those who had received training in the incremental theory reported greater enjoyment of their academic work (studying test-taking) and greater valuing of academic in general
-The gains were largest for the AA students, but they were also apparent for Caucasian students
CONCLUSION:
-Study dramatically demonstrates that a motivational analysis can have strong implications for education and indeed for any endeavor involving skilled performance
I-s a strong educational advantage for informing students about incremental theories of cognitive abilities (intelligence) and by providing students with a mindset that impinges a feeling of high ability
Results of Educational Interventions (Study)
47
Temporary personality characteristics of thought that fluctuate over time and can change depending on environment/situation (Moods and Emotions)
Affective States
48
Personality characteristics that are stable over time and context (Stable way of emotional appraisal and responding)
Affective States
49
Duration: Longer Lasting
Intensity: Less intense
Source: Unclear, Undefined
Moods
50
Duration: Short-lived
Intensity: More intense
Source: Event or person
Emotions
51
Positive vs Negative
-The subjective experience of the emotional components of affect (circumstances, consequences)
Valence
52
The state of feeling awake activated and highly reactive to external events and stimuli
Arousal
53
-Memories associated with an emotional state are easier to retrieve when in the same emotional (mood)
-Memories associated with emotional state are herder to retrieve when in a different emotional state (mood)
State Dependent Memory
54
Goodwin et al
-48 medical students performed a number of learning/memory tasks on day 1
-Students were given recall tasks after 24 hours (day 2)
-4 groups
-1: (SS) sober on both days
-2: (II) Intoxicated on both days
-3: (IS) Intoxicated on day 1 and Sober on day 2
-4: (SI) Sober on day 1 and intoxicated on day 2
Participants had to perform 4 tests: an avoidance task, a verbal rote-learning task, a word association test, and a picture recognition task
-FOUND that info learnt while drunk is more available when in same state later. More errors were made in day 2 in the SI and IS cond. than in the II or SS conditions (not the case in recognition test)
-SS participants performed best in all tasks
State Dependent Memory Ex 1
55
Godden and Baddeley
-16 scuba divers learned a list of words either on land or underwater
-They were then tested on their recall of the words either on land or underwater
-The divers' recall was best when they took the test under the same conditions in which they had learned the words (Land-land or underwater-underwater)
-On average the benefit of matching contact was about 4 additional words recalled out of 36
State Dependent Memory Ex 2
56
Bower:
-16 participants are placed into a happy mood then asked to learn/memory a 16-word list
-immediately after, the same 16 participants brought into a sad mood and are asked to learn/memorize a new 16 word list
-Time passes and participants come back for a follow up session
-Again, placed in happy and sad mood and are asked to recall the memorized words from the happy or sad list
-mood congruency Effect
Affect and Memory Ex 1
57
Snyder and White
-Mood induced by asking to think happy or sad thoughts
-Report on recent life events
-Independent raters, rate the recent life events as either pos. or neg.
Results: Reported events congruent with induced mood
Affect and Memory Ex 2
58
Associative Network Theory
Happy ---> Bacon and Eggs---> Food
-Including a mood 'primes' the associated semantic concepts
Mood-State Dependent Memory
59
Rinick
-Subjects brought into a happy or sad mood
-Asked to rate 30 words on their emotional valence
-No specific learning instructions (incidental learning)
-Returned the new day and were asked to 'recall' under neutral conditions (no mood induced)
-Pleasant words recalled more in the happy mood, unpleasant recalled more when sad (Strongly toned)
-Pleasant words recalled more in the sad mood, unpleasant recalled more in happy mood(Mildly toned)
Mood Congruent Learning
60
-A negative mood state signals there is a problem that needs to be addressed which leads to focus on detail
-Positive mood indicated that everything is fine, resulting in normal processing of information. Focus on holistic info processing
Affect as Information Theory
61
Basso
-Depression and positive mood was measured
-Positive mood and optimism were positively correlated with global processing and negatively with local processing
-Negative mood showed the reverse pattern
-Evidence for Affect as Information theory
Mood and Visual Information Study
62
Droit-Violet
-Pre-test, no bias for ambiguous (e.g. 500ms) stimuli in terms of duration perception
-Participants perceive them as short and long equally often
-no effects for watching neutral or sad films
-After watching a fearful film, participants perceived stimuli as longer in duration, as evidenced by more 'Long' responses to ambiguous stimuli
-High Arousal/Valence stimuli affect cogntion (here, the internal clock)
Mood and Time Perception
63
-Most studies were conducted in laboratories and may not necessarily translated to unstructured classroom contexts
-Most of the studies were conduced with college students and may not account for developmental differences
-The tasks are fairly different from the tasks that students are typically asked to complete in academic settings
Affect based processing in education problems
64
Experiments: Short duration of experiment, Learning takes place <1hr, New and without context
Classroom: Long duration of tests, Learning occurs over weeks/months, Relevant content domain/prior experiment
Experiments vs. Classrooms
65
Linnebrick and Pintrich
-Investigated the relation between affect and students' learning about projectile motion (Newtonian Physics)
-Affect was assessed during the single learning period
-Valence (positive,negative)
-Arousal (high,low)
-Pre-and post test of physics understanding (Are there conceptual changes?)
RESULTS
-Positive affect was correlated with post-test performance
-Turned out that positive affect was not correlated with an increase in performance from pre- to post-test
-Those with negative affect performed worse on post-test than positive affect
CONCLUSION: While positive affect may be associated with enhance achievement on the post-test it is not linked with increased 'conceptual change'
Affect based information processing in education
66
-One cares about the activity
-The activity is deemed important
-Activity is deemed important
-Associated with positive feelings
-Engages and engrossed with the activity
-Can be short lived (responding to an event that evoked curiosity)
Interest
67
Describes short-lived motivational aspects related to an activity or stimulus that catches attention and keeps a person focused
Situational Interest
68
Describes an ongoing tendency to be attracted to or to enjoy, specific event, activities and subjects.
-Transfers over context and time
Individual Interests
69
Knowledge--Positive Emotion--Personal Value
Four Phases:
Triggered Situational Interest--Maintained Situational Interest--Emerging Individual Interest--Well-developed Individual Interest
How can situational interest turn into individual interest?
70
Refers to a psychological state of interest that results from short-term changed in affective and cognitive processing
Triggered Situational Interest
71
Refers to a psychological state of interest that is subsequent to a triggered state, involved focused attention and persistence over an extended episode in time, and/or reoccurs and again persists
Maintained Situation Interest
72
Refers to a psychological state of interest as well as to the beginning phases of a relatively enduring predisposition to seek repeated reengagement with particular classes of content over time
Emerging Individual Interest
73
Refers to the psychological state of interest as well as to a relatively enduring predisposition to reengage with particular classes of content over time
Well-developed individual interest
74
Triggered interest--Knowledge--Positive Affect--Personal Meaning-Stable repeated behavior
The four-phase model in learning
75
-Contributes to learning achievement
-Interest is a mental resource that enhances learning, leading to higher performance and achievement
-Both situational and individual interest promote attention,recall,task persistence and efforts
-Beyond Learning
-Interest can be perceived as essential with respect to adjustment and happiness in life
-Essential to charting life's course
-Both situational and individual can play a powerful role in predicating future choices and career paths
The importance of interest
76
-College students followed their first semester of their freshman year through graduation
-Students' interest during an introductory psychology course taken during the first semester of their freshman year was measured
-After 7 years subsequent interest in psychology was measured in two ways
-Students' academic transcripts were analyzed
-The number of additional psychology courses that they took were counted and coded whether or not students chose to major is psych
RESULT : the interest that students reported at the end of their first semester predicted the number of additional psychology courses taken over the course of their academic career, as well as whether or not they decided to major in psychology
Harackiewicz Interest Study
77
Xiang et al
-Found that fourth graders who were more interested in a school-based running program (Road runners) were more likely to spend their free-time engaged in running
-Interest can have a powerful influence on peoples lives by impacting how they choose to spend their free time, and by influencing college course selections and major as well as the trajectory of students careers after college
Xiang importance of interest study
78
Individuals will be motivated to engage in a task to the extent that they feel they can be successful at it (expectancy) and they perceive that task as being important to them in some way (value)
Expectancy-Value of Motivation
79
Activities (tasks) have value because they are fun and enjoyable
Intrinsic value
80
Activities (tasks) have value because they are useful and relevant to other aspects of life
Utility value
81
Hulleman
-Studies the effects of a utility value intervention for participants who had low-versus high-success expectancies in math
-Participants learned a new mental math technique and the performed a set of multiplication problems
-Experimental vs control: Exp. Group wrote essay on the personal value of learning a new math technique. Control group wrote an unrelated essay
MAIN RESULTS: Exp. groups showed increased interest in the math technique compared to the control group, regardless of how competent participants thought they were at math
Hulleman Interest and Expectancy Value
82
A study sample is divided into one group that will received the intervention being studies (the treatment groups) and another groups that will not received the intervention (the control group)
-Combination of experiment and observational study
-Causal inferences can be made
-Potential approach to bring lab-based methods to the real-world
Randomized Field Experiments
83
METHODS
-utility value was manipulated and its effects on classroom interest was assessed
-After mid-semester exam, introductory psychology (n=237) and statistics students (n=44) received an essay assignment to complete within the next 3 weeks
-The students in the utility condition wrote about how this topic applied to their lives in some way, whereas students in the control condition wrote a summary of what they had learned about the topic
-At the end of the semester, their interest in psychology (or inclination to take more statistics courses) was assessed on an in class survey
-Success expectancies were based on participants ' mid-semester exam grades
RESULTS: Students with low exam scores reported higher levels of interests in psychology (or greater inclination to take more statistics courses) in the utility conditions that the control
-Students with high exam scores equally high amounts of interest at the end of the semester regardless of experimental condition
-Utility value intervention particularly beneficial for poor-performing/low-ability students
STUDY Randomized Field Experiments
84
-Motivation is a journey towards an end-state
-Of several end-states, which one does a person select, commit to, and attempt to achieve?
End-states (origin of goals)
85
Individuals set their minds to different phases of the goals achievement process.
-Phase 1: Multiple goals are generated. Decide what goal criteria are important. Decide which goals(s) will be selected and committed to
-Phase 2: Individuals plan on which behaviors are available to achieve the selected goal
Mindset Theory of Action
86
A goal is the cognitive image of a future outcome
-It can represent an object, behavior or feeling
-This image activates and guides behavior
-Future outcome does not qualify as a goal until a person commits to achieving it
(Importance, Difficulty,Specificity, Temporal Range, Level of Consciousness, Connectedness/Complexity)
Goal dimensions (origin of goals)
87
Goal's attractiveness, intensity relevance, priority, and sign (pos and neg)
Importance
88
Level of goal that determines how challenging it is to achieve. As goal difficulty increases so does its value
Difficulty (origin and characteristic)
89
Goal is qualitative and ranges from being vaguely to precisely stated.
Higher specified goals have a clearer outcome and increase planning ability
-Vagueness introduced by non-specific instructions
Specificity (origin and characteristic)
90
Goals range from proximal (immediate) to distal (delayed) and of short to long duration
Temporal Range
91
Cognitive awareness of goals is greater for proximal goals than for distal goals
Level of Consciousness
92
With greater complexity, goals have more connections to behaviors, subgoals, and other goals
Connectedness/Complexity
93
Depends on:
-The value or utility of outcome is important
-The outcome with the highest probability of success will be selected
-Time and effort needed to achieve a goal is relevant
Which available outcome is selected as a goal? (Goal Selection)
94
Commits to a goal until:
-The goals has been achieved
-The original goal has been displaces by another goal
-The goal has been abandoned
Committing to a goal until (Goal Selection)
95
Future goal-states can motivate current behavior
Positive vs Negative Future Goals:
-A future positive goal is represented in the present as something a person is motivated to become or motivated to achieve
-A future negative goal when visualized in the present is something to be avoided and represents what a person does not want to become
Future Goal States
96
The closer an individual comes to their goal, the stronger the motivation to approach its positive features and to avoid its negative features
-Proximal goals have more value
-Distal goals have less value
Changes in the strength of the approach tendency are slower than changes int he avoidance tendency
Proximal vs Distal
97
The desire to excel and do better
-We want more and better things, not fewer and worse things
-Future possible self: individuals may visualize possible selves they would like to become and other possible selves they would like to avoid
Levels of Aspiration(Where do goals come from)
98
Anticipating how we will feel
-Affective forecasting. Expecting positive or negative emotions based on achievement and pride (or lack of achievement and shame, sadness)
-Strong links to approach and avoidance
-Bias towards positive outcomes
-Driven by previous approach and avoidance
Goals and Affect (Where do goals come from)
99
Physiological Satisfaction
Warden(drive incentive link) Physiological drive automates goal-directed behavior
Tolman (Theory of purposive behavior) valence of a stimulus depends on a person's motivational or physiological state. Highest valence selected.
-Cabanac (alliesthesia) Judge whether stimuli are pleasant or unpleasant Homeostasis come from unpleasant stimuli
Satisfaction of Needs(Where do goals come from)
100
Indications of success and failure at particular tasks raise or lower self-efficacy which in turns affects a person's future goal striving
Goal-setting and self-efficacy (Where do goals come from)
101
Goal relevant stimuli can activate goals from memory
Environmentally activated goals (Where do goals come from)
102
-Role Models
-Social comparison
Other people as source of goal (Where do goals come from)
103
The rank of a gaol in a hierarchy of potential goals
-Higher level goals have higher value and/or grater utility and private benefits compared to lower level ones
Group Level (Goal Characteristics)
104
-Interaction between goal-level and goal specificity
-Ex. Students are asked how to improve dorm living conditions
-Goal level: easy/low improvements that benefit a few people | difficult/high - improvements that benefits all dorm residents
-Goal Specificity: specific: provide up to three improvements. vague provide as many improvements as possible
-Research has shown that both difficult and specific goals results in more achievement behavior than do vague goals or no goals
Goal Characteristics Study
105
Expectancy is an individual belief in the likelihood that they can achieve goal, while Value is the with or attractiveness of that goal
-Usually highest expectancy expectancy and high value motivate goal slestion
-Expected value=Expectancy x Value
Expectancy Value Theory
106
Goal selection is based on the utility and probability of the goal being achieved
-Goal utility refers to the usefulness is satisfying a person's wants or in providing satisfaction or happiness
-DEfined by subjective probability: a person's belief that a particular event will occur
-Expected Utility=Goal utility x Subjective Probability
Expected Utility Theory
107
Perspective from which a goal is viewed
-Viewed as a opportunity for gain ir to avoid loss
-Probability of gaining and losing is crucial
Framing
108
-People are risk-averse in regard to winning money. They do not like to take risks and prefer the more certain (90 percent) win, since it is less risky
People are risk-seeking in regard to losing money and prefer to take a risk. They choose the loss that is less likely the risker option (45 percent)
Prospect Theory
109
The process whereby a person becomes set to achieve a goal
-It implies a person's willingness and persistent determination to expand time and effort in its pursuit
-Greater commitment=greater expenditure of effort
-Effects of Commitment more apparent for difficult goals
Goal Commitment
110
Preventing other goals or behaviors from interfering with the pursuit of the current one
-Acts by inhibiting alternative goals or non goal behaviors
-LEss relevant for high level goals
-Announcing goals to other increases and facilitates this process
Commitment as goal shielding
111
(Phase 2) individual become receptive to information about how to achieve a goal
Implementation intention is formed: if then plan consisting of a cognitive link between a specific situation (if) and goal achievement behavior (then)
-if-then goals specify when, where, and how the person will behave to achieve their goal
Mind Thoery
112
1. people set goals that exceeds or improve a current state (receive feedback about current state relative to the goal)
2. People behave in order to achieve that goal
-Reduce discrepancy between current and desired state (goal)
Two sources of motivation
113
How much further does an individual; have to progress before the goal is achieved (motivaiton increases with this perspective)
To-go Perspective
114
How much has the individual already accomplished toward achieving a goal (motivation decreases)
To-date Perspective
115
Are there motivational strategies that can help an individual achieve goals once implementation intentions are translated into goal achievement behaviors?
-Motivation for the final (distal) goal increases with the addition of subgoals (proximal) that must be achieved along the way
Subgoals
116
-Assumes that goals are self-centered and only concerned with self-survival
-The goal operated according to Darwin's principle of selection and selects stimuli and behaviors that ensure its achievement
-A goal takes charge and focuses only goal-revelant stimuli, shuns away from competing goals, and selects behaviors that will lead to a goal success
Selfish-Goal Hypothesis
117
Extrinsic and Intrinsic satisfaction
Achievement valence The Satisfaction a person received from achieving a goal
Higher benefits accompany more difficult goals but the likelihood of attaining satisfaction decreases
If goal not reached: Try again or quit
Goal Achieved
