Midterm Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
Piaget General assumptions: stage theory of development
A
-Cognition develops through a series of distinct stages- not gradual acquisition of knowledge.
-Qualitative (tadpole to frog) not quantitative (small tadpole to big tadpole)
-Stages are invariable (same for everyone-same order, no skipping), universally experienced, individual differences-children may go through stages at different speeds.
2
Q
Piaget General assumptions: Domain-General
A
-All abilities are linked- contrasts with information-processing models
3
Q
Piaget General Assumptions: Children as Active Agents
A
-Children constantly seek out stimulation in their environment, children are curious and responsible for their own development (as much responsible as parents)
4
Q
Piaget General Assumptions: Constructivist approach
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-Children discover/construct all knowledge of the world through their own actions- via interactions with the environment (build up-together experiences-tie together to create ability). Individual difference- you have different pieces to construct with depending on experience.
5
Q
Assimilation
A
incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.
Specific→General (developing ideas): dopping a cup may have been accidental initially but babies learn that elicits a funny reaction from parent and starts dropping all kinds of objects (assimilation)
6
Q
Accommodation
A
adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences.
General→ Specific (updating ideas): baby though dropping bowl of food would be funny but parents got angry so baby learns not to drop food (accommodation)
7
Q
Schemas
A
cogntivite structures that organize knowledge. Assimilation and accommodation happens continuously to build the most useful set of chemas for interaction with the world. Behavioural schemes characterize infancy and mental (cognitive) scheme develop in childhood.
8
Q
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years):
A
First stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (e.g. hearing) with motoric actions. Inability to differentiate self from the world. 6 substages characterized by increased: intentionality, object knowledge, symbolic representation.
First month: limited to reflexes
Around 8 months see: first evidence of goal-directed behaviour, understanding cause and effect, and object permanence
Between 18-24 months see: new behaviours without trial and error, understand symbolic representation (cartoons now make sense), deferred imitation (6m-remerber 24h later; 14 months- remember 1 week later), shopping cart study- you differ from others
9
Q
Object permeance
A
understanding that objects disappear when out of sight.
10
Q
The A-not-B Error
A
occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) to locate an object, rather than looking in the new hiding place (B), as they progress into substage 4 in piaget’s sensorimotor stage. 8-12 mo ths old- older= less likely to make error
11
Q
Preoperational stage (2-7 years):
A
-Largely define by what the cold cannot do (operations)- difficulty mentally manipulating items they see in the real world.
-Children fail to understand: reversibility, and conservation
-Characterized by egocentrism: The inability to distinguish between one’s own and someone else’s perspective.
12
Q
Egocentrism
A
The inability to distinguish between one’s own and someone else’s perspective.
13
Q
Concrete operational stage (7-11 years):
A
Children can perform concrete operations and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific concrete examples. Ability to solve various conservation and reversibility taks- less influenced by outside appearance.
14
Q
Formal operational stage (11-Adulthood):
A
Move beyond concrete experiences and think in more abstract and logical ways. Can reason abstractly (algebra),have heightened metacognition (ability to think about thinking- diary), and generate idea about things they have never before experienced-generate ideas not limited to real world (lofty ideas-idealism)
15
Q
Limitations of Piaget’s Theory:
A
- underestimating children competence and some adults are less competent than he theorized
-vague processes
-Variation in performance not accounted for (think 7 vs 2 year old- in the same stage?)
-Undervalues influence of sociocultural environment on cognitive development- vygotsky)
16
Q
Vygotsky-Intersubjectivity
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Mutual shared understanding among participants in an activity. Learning happens through shared activities. 1st social- then internal: understand first by learning to interact then internalize
17
Q
Vygotsky-Guided participation
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Cognitive growth results from children’s involvement in structured activities with others who are more skilled than them.
18
Q
Vygotsky-Zone of proximal development:
A
Difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with the help of someone who is more capable. Best to teach within this zone.
19
Q
Vygotsky-Scaffolding:
A
Experts who are sensitive to the abilities of the child respond cognitively to the child’s reactions in the learning situation- take baby steps
20
Q
Information processing theory:
A
-Human cognition consists of mental hardware and software. Analogy to computers
21
Q
Sensory Memory:
A
raw unanalyzed information is held (unlimited) very briefly- afterimage of hand). Attention filters what information to pass on to working memory(tells us what to process).
22
Q
Working Memory:
A
Ongoing cognitive activity (RAM). Desktop of your brain- current cognitive processes, necessary for switching tasks
23
Q
Long-term Memory:
A
Limitless, permanent store of knowledge. Similar experiences can update memories so not like a permanent video record of your experiences but rather a way to reactivate neural networks involved in the original encoding- merge similar info to just get highlights increasing efficiency. Recognition may be easier than retrieval with no cues.
24
Q
Executive functioning:
A
inhibiting inappropriate behaviour; switching tasks; updating working memory contents. Develops most during childhood.
25
Improvement in executive function allows:
better use of strategies, faster processing, better attention, better inhibitory control, more cognitive flexibility
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Children have limited used of attention strategies
difference is scanning patterns for differences between 5 and 8 year olds- more systemic as get older
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Speed of processing:
young children require more time to complete cognitive tasks: speed increases with age. Speed increase due to increased myelination and synaptic pruning.
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Attention changes with development
with age attention span (how long can pay attention) and selective attention (can ignore distractions) increases.
29
Inhibitory control
-Inhibition= ability to prevent a cognitive or behavioral response. Increases with age. Tasks such as day/night, simon says, and gift delay (marshmallow task) all assess inhibitory control.
30
Cognitive flexibility:
Ability to shift between sets of rules or tasks- shown on dimensional card sort task- red/blue sort then truck/circle- stuck on the first set of instructions. Children often preservate a single action. Wisconsin card sorting task.
31
Sensation
when information interacts with sensory receptors- the eyes, ears, tongue, nostril and skin.
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Perception:
interpretation of what is sensed. Air waves interpreted as music
33
Visual preference method (preference paradigm)
method developed by Fantz to determine whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli. Infants 2 days old look longer at patterned stimuli such as faces and concentric circles. Infants 2-3 weeks old preferred to look at patterns- a face, a piece of printed matter or a bullseye.
34
infant vision and testing
Testing visual acuity using teller acuity cards and measuring looking time.
At birth visual acuity is about 30x worse than adult (20/240 vision)
Contrast sensitivity is also 20-25 times worse than adult- due to contrast and acuitity limitations, a baby at birth looks primarily at contour of face but by 2 months looks around more similar to adult. Newborns prefer high contrast. ALso have deficits in convergence, coordination and colour perception.
35
Habituation and dishabituation:
Habituation- decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentation of the stimulus. Dishabituation is the recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation. Newborns can habituate to sights, sounds, smells or touches- changes in behaviour such as sucking, breathing, heart and looking time demonstrate habituation and dishabituation.
36
Externality effect
newborns focus on the outline and ignore the shape inside
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Experience shapes perceptual processes:
At 3 months old- infants prefer their own race races (because they have predominantly been exposed to it- infants that see both white and black faces have no preference)- Brain wired to selective attendant to key thing in our environment.
Preference: which do you like better; ability to discriminate: can you tell the difference
Perceptual narrowing: at 3 months old- could discriminate caucasian, chinese, african and middle eastern faces; 6 months- chinese and caucasian (done in toronto lots of asian faces also); 9 months could only discriminate caucasian faces- descriminante only the race w/in their environment (perception fined tuned to environment)- same with monkeys
Also for hearing-Phonemic discrimination: 1 and 4 month olds can discrimination between ba and pa (measured with changes in sucking)
38
Operant conditioning
BEST MEASURE OF PREFERENCE
Cannot fully discern preference from looking time- may be impacted by other factors- behavior tells us real preference.
Yong infants: compare amount of behaviour 1 vs 2 to measure preference- eg looking times to measure auditory preference- look R to play one song L for the other-look the direction for the song they want tp play. Conditioned head turning
39
Auditory development: language
Infants demonstrate- preference for midfrequncy tones (human speech) and prefer high frequency (motherese). Prefer forwards vs backwards played speech (know how it should shond). Categorical perception of phenomes- get worse at differentiating phenomes not in language.
40
Auditory development: Music
Early perceptual biases: natural pasues in music 9at end of sentence)-4-6 months, Consonant over dissonant tones.
Perceptual tuning (9-12 months): prefer own muscle scale and rhythms
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Controlled sucking behaviour:
train babies to suck- baseline introduce new stimuli- sucking increases then habituate and it decreases, new again increases again switch between increasing and decreasing sucking- infants learn to alter sucking behaviour to control what plays- shows preference.
-infants listen longer to mothers voice over stranger, listen longer to familiar story- rember rhythm vs new story.
42
Intersensory redundancy:
Infants’ perceptual system is particularly attuned to amodal (not belonging to a single sensory mode) information presented to multiple sensory modes
Synesthesia- amodal perception in adulthood- perhaps present in infancy but never pruned- heat voice see color- usually very consistent.
Innate or learned- colour with emotion, expressions like feel blue
Infant synesthesia- sight and touch- infants looked longer at pacifier that matched the tactile sensation of what they were sucking
43
Emotional expression: redundancy
-Infants (4,5,7 months) watch videos of emotional portrayal (both audio and visual)- infants habituate- then present a different emotion- audio and visual, video only or audio only. 4 months old could discriminante emoths with both visual and auditory (need redundancy), 5 month old could discriminate with just audio and 7 month olds could discriminante with just visual. Bue even as adults redundancy helps- eg masks and hearing loss
44
Attention:
-Process that allows people to control input from the environment and regulate behaviour.
Attentional networks
-Alering network: keeps attentional process prepared, ready to detect and respond to stimuli
-Orienting network: selects which stimuli will be processed further
-Executive network: monitoring thoughts, feelings, behaviour (most complex, develops slowly)- modify behaviour based on stimuli
45
ADHD:
3-7% school-aged children- 4:1 boys (genetic). Inattention: unable to stay on task, difficulty maintaining prolonged attention. Hyperactivity and impulsivity to varying degrees- depends on individual
46
Infant brain is prepared to learn:
Visual acuity, Preference for face-like stimuli
-preference of patients after treatment (1-12 months old) matched newborn preference- show that the brain is ready to support once vision is available.
Acuity measured with teller cards after treatment improved after just 1 hour of seeing and improved even more 1 months later (more so so aged-matched normals). Infant brain was waiting for experience- experience expectant: expect visual input-get it-triggers neural development
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Gene x Environment-Experience-Expectant processes
brain was waiting for visual input to set up neural architecture for visual perception- even without brain was set up t prefer some patterns and ready- soon as 1h after- same as newborns
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Gene x Environment-Experience-Dependent processes:
brain specializes in processing information that is in the environment (race or face, human/monkey faces, phonemes in language, mom’s smell).
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Face perception in Monkeys reared with no exposure to faces
-Raised in visually rich but no faces- following deprivation exposed to human or monkey faces for 1 month: experience expectant: even during deprivation monkeys preferred faces to objects. Experience dependent: after 1 month selective exposure monkeys preferred the species face they saw. These preferences persisted a year later after the deprivation period, effects were the same regardless of length of deprivation(6 vs 24 months)
50
Violation of expectation paradigm:
Not just habituation vs dishabituation-test always different from inhabited objects- should look longer at both- but only look longer at objects that violate expectation- used to examine what babies know- cognitive development.
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neural tube
18-24 days after conception from the ectoderm- tube closes at about day 24. neural tube closure and growth of immature neurons begins around week 5 and continues throughout the prenatal period.
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-neural tube defects
anencephaly: highest regions of the brain fail to develop and head end of neural tube fails to close; spinapifida, Maternal diabetes and obesity risk for neural tube defects
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Neurogenesis:
generation of new neurons in one small region of neural tube 10-28 weeks - peak of neurogenesis 200 000 neurons formed/min (4000 neurons/sec). No new neurons after birth except for in hippocampus (memory formation)
54
Neuronal migration
6-24 weeks. Cells move outward from origin to appropriate (permanent) location via glial cells- create diff levels, structure and regions of the brain. Faulty migration associated with disorders such as epilepsy and cerebral palsy.
55
Differentiation:
neurons grow in size, produce more dendrites and longer axons. Neurons become specialized. Synaptogeneiss begins (about 23w-postnatal) (synapse formation). Also see increased myelination- fatty sheath protecting and covering axons- speeds conduction velocity, reduces leakage of electrical impulses; occurs early in infancy up until early adulthood.
56
Cell and synaptic pruning
Removal of neurons and synapses that are not being used- increases efficiency in remaining neurons/synapses. Use it or lose it phenomenon- at first the brain doesn't know what will be important- later the brain learns what society values/what is needed- that is what is maintained- dont want too many cooks in the kitchen.
57
Prenatal hearing:
-16 wells, fetus perceives sound outside the womb through fluid-filled ears (recall ducks- could not recognize mother when hearing was damaged)- but sounds like charlie brown’s teacher. Fetus learns focal rhythms and patterns (moms voice and digestion)→ prepares them to perceive sounds in what will be their native language
-Mother is lead lecturer in prenatal lessons. Bilingual mother- sounds shape brain development and predisposes children to learn those languages- by being exposed to different sounds and rhythm
58
Should parents read to their prenatal
no evidence that simulates brain development. Music= stimulating pattern- womb is filtered by amniotic fluid- only rhythm gets through- so what child is exposed to after birth is more important. Fetus learning is rudimentary and sufficient- brain not preparing to hear supersonic or whale noises- no evidence that parents can do anything specific to enhance children’s intelligence or temperament.
59
Newborns to deaf parents
no evidence that hearing children of deaf parents experience language delay- still hear other sounds-5-10 hrs/week of exposure (which they get form other people) seems sufficient. They demonstrate same preferences to consonance (chords that fit together) to dissonance at 2 days old (mozart's minuet) also prefer infant directed (intonation) vs adult directed sining
60
reading Dr Seuss while pregnant
after birth newborns preferred read dr seuss vs other stories and mothers voice over others (no fathers voice reference- fetus only hear mothers voice)
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Prenatal taste:
-taste of amniotic fluid- carrot juice during pregnancy and/or when breastfeeding- when babies started solids (6mnths) cereal made with water or carrot juice. Infants exposed to carrot juice (either amniotic or breast milk)- showed less negative facial expression when eating carrot cereal, enjoyed carrot cereal more than regular.
-facial movements via ultrasound after consuming bitter or sweet capsules- bitter-grimaces- sweet- smile markers
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Teratogen:
agent that causes a birth defect- consider: Dose, genetic susceptibility, time of exposure. Teratology-investigates the causes of birth defects.
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Thalidomide
prescribed for morning sickness (1950’s)- babies born with deformities in arms, legs, hands, fingers. 10 000 infants affected before pulled from the market. Dr Kelsey- refused FDA approval in 1960.
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Teratogen-Disease:
some can pass through the placenta and attack the fetus- cytomegalovirus (type herpes), Rubella, syphilis, zika). May attach at birth from lining of birth canal (genital herpes, AIDs, zika)
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Nicotine:
can adversely impact prenatal development- constricts blood vessels and decreases O2 and nutrients through placenta. preterm, low birth weight, fetal and neonatal death, respiratory problems- SIDS more common.Children show impaired cognitive skills, delayed language, behavioral problems, adolescents show impaired memory. Increases ADHD and learning deficits. Environmental tobacco impacts gene functioning, ovarian functioning. Increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in children. (hard to isolate imapctsince likely will continue to be exposed)
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Alcohol-Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in offspring of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy- FAS most sever- consumed more than 5oz/week. Anomalies- slow growth, hearth problems, facial deformities. Some have an intellectual disability- most have learning challenges (leading cause of developmental disorders in North America- 0.1% canadian newborns- higher in indigenous communities). Have deficiencies in brain pathways involved in aspects of perception, cognition and behaviour- actual brain damage prenatally causing cognitive defects. Safe amount dependent on many factors (genes, individual differences)- cautious approach
67
Rooting reflex
sucking in response to being touched at cheek or near mouth
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Moro reflex
startle response to sudden loss of support, typically consisting of arms spread out; arms pulling in; crying
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Grasping reflex
reflex of hand to grasp when touched (cling increases safety)
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Babinski reflex
Dorsiflexion of toe and spreading out of toes in response to touch along foot.
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Stepping reflex
when feet feels a solid surface, leg moves automatically
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Tonic neck reflex
position of infants arms and head resemble a fencing pose-extension of one arm and flexion of the other- disappears around 4 months- prepares baby’s muscle for motor control
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Neonatal imitation
-neonates imitate facial expressions- failure to replicate
-shown in mother-reared monkeys but not peer red and disappeared by fay 10- smell interaction?
-Current interpretation: likely a reflex that helps establish emotional bonds with caregivers- also practical control of facial expressions
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Crying
-newborns cry 2-3hrs/day
-Basic cry: starts soft then gradually becomes more intense (typically due to unger or fatigue)
-Mad cry: more intense
-Pain cry: sudden, long shriek, followed by a ling paused then gasping- requires immediate attention
Strategy: 0-3mnths- attend tp baby and check for signs of discomfort; after 3mths ok to let baby cry and learn to self sooth-think nomantic times- baby strapped to mother and went along with day
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Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS)
Abusive head trauma sustained by an infant (or young child) because of rough shaking- often to stop a baby from crying. Damage in 5 seconds of shaking
Infants have soft brain and weak neck muscles- when a shaken brain hits the skull causing bleeding, bruising and swelling: brain cells lack O2 and die causing permanent brain damage. Happens in all SES and cultures- impulsive act by exhausted/frustrated caregivers
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Halow infant attachment experiment:
nutrients=important but evolutionary drive is to seek touch/physical comfort more than food!
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Kangaroo care:
for preterm infants- infants held skin to skin against bother’s breast under mothers clothes. Babies have regular heart rate, better sleep and mother has better lactation
Massage therapy for preterm infants stress behaviours (crying, grimacing, startles etc)- see benefit (not in full term)
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Each chromosome
1 molecule of DNA (blueprint)- smallest unit of biochemical instructions in DNA=gene each with its own designated place on chromosome-assemble proteins
-25 000 genes in 46 chromosomes- accounts <1% for meaningful individual differences
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body cells
have 46 chromosomes, mitosis- duplicate and cell divides- 2 new identical cells
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sex cells
have 23 chromosomes, Meiosis- duplicates chromosomes- divides twice- forms 4 cells with half genetic material
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fertilization
create a single cell (zygote)- unpaired chromosomes combine forms 1 set of paired of chromosomes -Sex is determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes
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Genotype
A person’s genetic heritage; the actual genetic material present in each cell - for each genotype proper environment is important for achieving potential
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Phenotype:
The way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics.
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Dominant genes:
gene that always exerts it dominance
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Recessive Genes
only exerts its influence if both pairs are recessive.
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sex linked genes
most mutated genes are recessive. X linked inheritance: when mutation is carried on x chromosome- men are more susceptible. eg . hemophelia, fragile X
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Genomic imprinting
occurs when genes have differing effects depending on whether they are inherited from the mother of the father. A chemical process silences one member of the gene pair. If imprinting goes wrong then bad (growth disorders, wilms tumor)
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Polygenic inheritance
characteristics determined by the interaction of many different genes. Most psychological traits are manifest through many genes (polygenic) and their interactions with the environment. If had 4 genes each with recessive and dominant allele- would have many different genotypes- less phenotypes- would have normal distribution of genotypes
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Gene-gene interaction:
describe studies that focus on the interdependence of two or more genes in influencing characteristics, behaviour, diseases and development (eg immune syst functioning).
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Evolution
Process of change in gene frequencies over many generation
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natural selection
evolutionary processes by which individuals of a species that are best adapted (to their environment) survive and reproduce (darwin)
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Adaptive behaviour
behaviour that promotes an organism's survival in the natural habitat.
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Evolutionary Theory
Environment acts to select hereditary traits that are adaptive- changes occur to species over generations- DOES NOT ACT IN INDIVIDUALS
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Evolutionary theory-Development
selective traits are adaptive for each stage of development
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David Buss
evolution has contributed to our physical features and behaviour (decisions)
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Chromosomal abnormalities
Down syndrome, Kinefelter syndrome (XXY), Fragile X syndrome, Turner Syndrome (XO), XXY syndrome (all are sex linked except down syndrome)
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Gene-linked abnormalities:
cystic fibrosis, Diabetes, Hemophilia, Huntington disease, PKU, Sickle cell anemia, spina bifida, Tay-Sachs disease
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Genotype X phenotype
most traits are governed by many genes- phenotype depends on a combination of genes but also an interaction with environment
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Heritability
extent to which differences in traits can be attributed to inheritance. Value 0-1, proportion of variance in an observed trait that results from genetic variability explains on an POPULATION level, greater variability in environment, less heritability (Inverse relationship)
100
Effect of environment:
same genes can be raised in different environment-observe differences in phenotype (rats-enriched cages-dendrite and cortex differences)
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Twin studies:
Monozygotic twins: if raised in different enviroments- provides info on effect of environment; dizygotic twins compared to monozygotic twins to understand effect of genes.
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Developmental systems theory:
Development occurs within a system of interacting levels (genetics, neural activity, behaviour, environment). Focuses on epigenesis- lizard snake
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Epigenesis
Any functional change in the genome that does not involve an alteration in DNA sequence- experience modifies chemistry of gene activity, leading to changes in behaviour.
104
Environment →Genetic activity
-How does experience alter the brain: Mice with HGM vs LGM- result of pups was due to how they were raised rather than inherited genes-methylation (which silences/inactive gene)- HGM pups- demethylation- allows recept so to be created- better regulation of stress: interact at all levels (genetic, neutral, behaviour, environment)
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Passive genotype-environment correlations
Correlations that exist when the natural parents who are genetically related to the child provides a rearing environment for the child
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Evocative genotype-environment correlations
Correlations that exist when the child’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments
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Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
Correlations that exist when children seek our environments they find compatible and stimulating.
108
Gene X Environment
-Breastfeeding and IQ- CC C and breastfeeding saw difference
-Conduct disorders- Maltreatment and MAOA gene (important for neurotransmitter metabolism)
-Multisensory Effect- Baby ducks- genes prepare us to pay attention to the environment but environment similar for members of same species (so it is genetic or environmental)
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Biological perspective:
psychological development is a consequence of biological maturation of the body- controlled by DNA
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Psychoanalytic perspective:
Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily coloured by emotion. Early experiences with parents are emphasized. Erickson and freud
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Learning perspective:
Pavlov- classical conditioning- little albert
Skinner- Operant conditioning
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Cognitive perspective:
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory:-Based on organization and adaptation- intellectual capacities change with age.
113
Contextual perspective:
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory-Gave social interaction and culture far more important roles in cognitive development- emphasis how culture and social interaction guide development. Development= inseparable from social and cultural activities
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Continuity vs discontinuity
Continuity: Gradual cumulative change (resulting in development) vs Discontinuity: distinct stages (of development)
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Nature vs nurture
Nature: biological inheritance vs Nurture: environmental experiences
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Scientific method:
A four step process: 1. Conceptualize a process of problem to be studied, 2. Collect research information (data), 3. Analyze data, 4. Draw conclusions
Theory: An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explains and make predictions
Hypothesis: Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy
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Observation:
Laboratory, Naturalistic, sampling behaviour, self report, physiological measures
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Descriptive research:
Research that involves observing and recording behaviour. cannot determine cause and effect because they do not involve manipulating variables in a controlled way.
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Correlational Research:
Research in which the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. cannot determine cause and effect because they do not involve manipulating variables in a controlled way.
120
Correlation coefficient
(positive or negative): A number based on statistical analysis used to describe the degree of association between two variables (0= no correlation)
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Experimental Research
experiments used to determine cause and effect relationships
-Independent variable: variable being manipulated; Dependent variable: Variable is a factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable.
-Experimental group: group whose experience is manipulated. Control group: everything is the same as the experimental group except for the independent variable
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Cross sectional approach
Individuals of different ages are compared at the same point in time
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Longitudinal approach
Same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years
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Longitudinal sequential
Different groups of children at different ages are tested longitudinally.
