Midterm

Question 1

qual research

Answer 1

Research should focus on human lived reality

Inductive reasoning (from the specific to the general) leads to understanding.

Participants’ meanings are key.

Researchers must identify the definition of the situation.

Social settings are highly complex and can affect the outcome of an experiment.

Understanding exists in our agreed-upon experiences.

Question 2

quan. research

Answer 2

Research should focus on theory development and testing.

Deductive reasoning (from general to specific) leads to truth.

Researchers’ meanings are key.

Researchers must find “objective” definitions.

A valid experiment should arrive at the same conclusion no matter where it is performed.

Truth is an objective reality.

Question 3

positivism

Answer 3

Positivism has three principal attributes: (1) adherence to a realist perspective, (2) trust in causal knowledge, and (3) reliance on deductive reasoning.

Question 4

realist perspective

Answer 4

assumes that reality is out there, waiting to be discovered, or, in the case of psychology, that reality is in there waiting to be discovered. For positivists, therefore, the objective of social science is to uncover the “laws” of human behaviour—what Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) called “social facts” (1897/1951).

Question 5

causal knowledge

Answer 5

involves a belief that the world is made up of causes and effects that are external to individuals, observable, and measurable. This perspective borrows from the natural sciences and, indeed, has the goal of making social science worthy of the term science.

Question 6

deductive reasoning

Answer 6

a form of reasoning that uses a process of inference to derive conclusions from general laws or premises

Question 7

verstehen (a German word that translates as “sympathetic understanding”)

Answer 7

researchers should strive to put themselves in their research subjects’ shoes, to try to see their world through their eyes. For example, in Deborah’s research, she has worked with many older widows and, through interviews, she has developed a sympathetic understanding of the enormity of their loss. This understanding, in turn, has helped Deborah to interpret the information that she gathers from the interviews in a way that is appropriate to the widows’ experiences.

Question 8

importance of qual. re.

Answer 8

sympathetic understanding and definition of the situation.

Question 9

def. of the situation

Answer 9

this concept means that if we define a situation as true, it is true in its consequences. For example, when Deborah started a job as a waitress when she was in university, the person who was training her told her that women were poor tippers and that she should, therefore, not worry too much about how well she served them. That was her definition of the situation, and many servers in restaurants shared this definition. The consequence? Women often receive poorer service than men do. In response to poor treatment by servers, some women will, indeed, give a small tip, thus reinforcing the servers’ definition of the situation.

Question 10

symbolic interactionism

Answer 10

suggests that the meaning of an object evolves through individuals’ shared understandings of and interactions with that object. The object, or “thing,” has no intrinsic meaning except for the ones we give it.

Question 11

ethnomethodology

Answer 11

questioned how people go about everyday life in the absence of visible or formal rules, and he sought to discover the unwritten rules by which we communicate. For example, if your friend texts you and asks, “Do you want to go to the movies?” you do not reply “Yes,” put the phone in your pocket, and set off to see a movie by yourself. You know that the person is really asking you to go to the movies with them and that they expect you to understand this intention and to continue the conversation to discuss which movie you will see, when you will go, and where you will meet.

Question 12

breaching experiments

Answer 12

qualitative experiments in which the researcher intentionally breaks one of the unspoken laws of interaction. For example, if you were to meet a friend on the street and ask, “How are you?” you would likely expect the person to say “Fine” and continue walking. If your friend were doing a breaching experiment, they might answer, “How am I in regard to what? Finances? School work? Love life?”

Question 13

emergent

Answer 13

A characteristic of qualitative research. Research strategies change during the course of the research as the researcher becomes familiar with the research setting or social group.

Question 14

theoretical saturation

Answer 14

A stage that occurs when the researcher is no longer learning anything new in collecting data. At this point, the researcher stops collecting data.

Question 15

qual. differences in methods

Answer 15

Involves little or no advance knowledge of the type(s) of data to be collected

Allows participants to define how the study progresses and what the data mean

Strives for accuracy: researchers do not invent the actor’s viewpoint

Often involves in-depth interviews

Relies on subjective observation

Includes a literature review at the end of the study

Question 16

quan. differences in methods

Answer 16

Involves advance knowledge of the type(s) of data to be collected

Minimizes participants’ input into types of data collected

Strives for reliability: researchers make sure the findings can be replicated

Often involves questionnaires or surveys

Relies on objective experiments

Includes a literature review at the outset of the study

Question 17

mixed-methods research

Answer 17

A recent approach that combines qualitative methods with quantitative methods. Some argue that this approach can result in research findings that are more complete than could be arrived at by either method on its own.

Question 18

indigenous methodologies

Answer 18

Ways of carrying out research with Indigenous peoples and communities that take into account the legitimacy of Indigenous knowledge systems, receptivity and relationship between researchers and participants, reciprocity with the community, and stories as a legitimate way of sharing knowledge (Kovach 2015:53).

Question 19

indigenous résurgence

Answer 19

Paradigm that includes Indigenous peoples’ rootedness in the land, accountability to the community, and transformation through awakening to the impact of colonization and through knowledge that is transformational (Alfred 2015).

Question 20

two-eyed seeing

Answer 20

Research approach that involves both Indigenous and Western ways of knowing equally for the benefit of all.

Question 21

moral entrepreneurs

Answer 21

Individuals or groups who campaign to establish certain social behaviours as deviant or normative.

Question 22

generic social processes

Answer 22

Aspects of interaction that transcend individual situations (for example, acquiring perspectives, achieving identity, doing activity, developing relationships, experiencing emotionality, and achieving linguistic fluency).

Question 23

general social processes include:

Answer 23

(1) acquiring perspectives, (2) achieving identity, (3) doing activity, (4) developing relationships, (5) experiencing emotionality, and (6) achieving linguistic fluency

Question 24

impression management

Answer 24

Developed by Erving Goffman (1959), this concept explains how people work to control the impression of themselves that they communicate to others through demeanour, expression, dress, and so on.

Question 25

sociological imagination

Answer 25

The capacity to connect the patterns of individuals with those of society. It distinguishes between private troubles and public issues and is used to understand the connection between biography and history. C.W. Mills (1959) called it the “promise of sociology.”

Question 26

hierarchy of credibility

Answer 26

The common situation in which those in superordinate positions and “experts” are seen as more credible than those in subordinate or marginal social positions.

Question 27

participatory action-research

Answer 27

A form of community-based research that often aims to identify the needs and priorities of the group and translate findings into a form that can influence social policy or effect interventions to improve the situation of the group.

Question 28

community-based research

Answer 28

A collaborative approach to research that includes community members in the design, implementation, and analysis of a study. The researcher shares control of the study with the community group involved.

Question 29

serendipity

Answer 29

In general, a lucky coincidence. Researchers often experience an unexpected, spontaneous moment of inspiration that leads them to discover a social setting, research area, or theoretical insight while not actively looking for one.

Question 30

prescriptive

Answer 30

Those approaches that dictate right or wrong behaviour. Qualitative research is analytical and descriptive rather than prescriptive.

Question 31

acquiring perspectives

Answer 31

This process refers to how we learn to define objects in certain ways or to have particular attitudes towards objects or individuals.

Question 32

achieving identity

Answer 32

This process relates to how one becomes an object to oneself. It includes the “associations and negotiations” that people have with others

Question 33

ethical codes

Answer 33

(1) respect for persons, (2) concern for human welfare, and (3) justice

Question 34

research ethics board (REB)

Answer 34

A body that assesses the ethical implications of research studies and has the power to approve or reject a research proposal. All Canadian researchers who conduct research involving humans must submit their plans to a research ethics board for approval before carrying out their study.

Question 35

vocab of motives

Answer 35

The ways in which people describe and explain their reasons for doing things. These “vocabularies” are always tied to a particular social context; as such, they are subject to change and interpretation as one’s social circumstances change.

Question 36

Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS)

Answer 36

lays out ethical considerations for researchers working with human participants

Question 37

how to apply principles of ethics to qual. res.?

Answer 37

First, enter the research situation with an open mind. As a qualitative researcher, you should never expect your participants to confirm your own assumptions, and you should never invent or rush in to explain your participants’ motives. Second, it will be helpful to ask “how” questions rather than “why” questions. Third, acknowledge the various constraints that can intrude in a social setting that might also affect respect for the person. Fourth, use an approach that fits the circumstances of the individual participant, group, community, and/or culture. Fifth, forgo a “remedial” attitude. Your job is not to find a remedy for a problem or to “fix” things. Recall that qualitative research is descriptive and analytical rather than prescriptive. Finally, try to form authentic relationships with your participants. You should treat your participants as valued partners in the research process, not as subjects to be studied from a distance.

Question 38

seeking consent

Answer 38

In private or face-to-face situations, researchers are expected to seek informed consent from participants. In medical and most quantitative studies, researchers use consent forms that participants must sign before the start of the research, and many research ethics boards require researchers to use consent forms, duly signed by the research participant. Typically, the form explains the purpose and the methodology of the study, informs participants that they can stop the interview at any time without any personal risk, and provides a guarantee of confidentiality and anonymity. The use of signed consent forms is a legacy of the biomedical approach, and some believe they protect researchers and participants. Many, however, contest their appropriateness.

Question 39

where is written consent not appropriate?

Answer 39

First, there are certain settings in which it would be inappropriate or insensitive to seek individual written consent—for example, in cultures that nurture a sense of collectivity (and in which the individual’s identity only makes sense insofar as it is part of that collectivity) or in a setting where illiteracy is the norm. Second, some collectives might interpret the researcher’s seeking individual consent as an affront to the larger group. Third, some participants might want to protect their anonymity by not attaching their name to an “official” document. This is often the case when the research is focused on individuals living on the margins of society, those involved in illegal activities, or even those who occupy positions of power and prestige. Finally, some participants might see the need to sign a consent form as a serious betrayal of the trust that has developed over the course of previous interactions with the researcher. With the presentation of a formal consent form, what was initially a friendly soliciting of the perspectives and insights of a participant becomes a hopelessly unnatural relationship.

Question 40

presentism

Answer 40

The belief that we can use today’s standards to evaluate older texts and social phenomena.

Question 41

what requires a lot of ethical reflection?

Answer 41

writing up research

Question 42

writing up research

Answer 42

As you are deciding what to include in your write-up, you will have to consider the extent to which you will address ethical aspects of your research methods and findings. Many of these aspects could have the power to raise awareness of issues central to your study.

Question 43

Writing Concisely and with Clarity

Answer 43

Avoiding jargon and using short, straightforward sentences in your write-up will show your reader that you are not trying to confuse the issues, that you have nothing to hide. Using the active voice and the first-person perspective will also help you to accomplish this goal by forcing you to unambiguously state who conducted the research, who led the interviews, who did the coding, and who did the analysis.

Question 44

Offering a Balanced View

Answer 44

When you are writing up your research, it is critical that you focus on presenting a balanced view of your findings. Having researched a topic extensively, passionately, and with a great deal of sacrifice of resources, time, and effort, you may have developed your own moral or ethical judgments, but you must be careful to avoid overtly supporting or criticizing any side of an issue in your report.

Question 45

Developing a research question

Answer 45

Remain open-minded.

Question 46

Fieldwork

Answer 46

Spending a long period of time will require researchers to be open to unexpected ethical dimensions.

Question 47

Gaining access to the field

Answer 47

Be frank in explaining your research.

Question 48

Spending time in the field

Answer 48

Be aware of the effects of your presence in a given community or population.

Question 49

Leaving the field

Answer 49

Leave as a good guest.

Question 50

Covert field research

Answer 50

the researcher conceals their true identity or purpose from the participants. This means that the researcher does not reveal that they are conducting research, and the participants are unaware that they are being observed or studied. Bear in mind that sometimes harm or danger can be avoided when doing covert research.

Question 51

Interviews and transcriptions

Answer 51

Inform participants of the intentions of your research.

Question 52

Consent

Answer 52

typically ask for verbal consent

Question 53

Content analysis

Answer 53

Avoid presentism.

Question 54

Analyzing data

Answer 54

Be faithful to your data.

Question 55

Ethics in the digital age

Answer 55

Determine the difference between public and restricted access to data and information on the Internet.

Question 56

Writing up research

Answer 56

Respect the readers of your report, and be careful to maintain your participants’ anonymity.

Question 57

Writing concisely and with clarity

Answer 57

Avoid jargon and the passive voice.

Question 58

Offering a balanced view

Answer 58

Understand the challenge of being analytical and yet fair.

Question 59

ethnography

Answer 59

In-depth study of a group, culture, or society that usually entails fieldwork.

Question 60

The most common method of fieldwork

Answer 60

participant observation, which involves becoming a participant in the setting while retaining some distance as an observer.

Question 61

salvage ethnography

Answer 61

Early Canadian anthropology’s practice of collecting documents, photographs, and artifacts of First Nations and “folk” cultures of Quebec to preserve them in the mistaken belief that these cultures would soon die out.

Question 62

primary group

Answer 62

A group of people with whom an individual has close and long-lasting relationships. Members of a primary group usually include parents, siblings, and close friends.

Question 63

complete participant

Answer 63

A field researcher’s role in which they attempt to become a full-fledged member of the group they are studying, concealing their intent from the group.

Question 64

participant as observer

Answer 64

A role in which a field researcher makes their presence known to participants and participates in at least some of the group’s activities.

Question 65

observer as participant

Answer 65

A role in which a field researcher makes their presence known to participants but interacts with the group in only limited ways.

Question 66

complete observer

Answer 66

A field researcher’s role in which they do not interact with the participants in a social setting and might not inform them that they are doing a study.

Question 67

Complete participation pros and cons

Answer 67

offers an unobstructed view into participants’ lives, but there are obvious ethical issues associated with this approach. In addition, the complete participant risks identifying so strongly with the group members that they lose the ability to look at the situation analytically. In some settings—particularly, those involving cults, gangs, and radical political groups—the members may “actively seek to convert the researcher”

Question 68

participant as observer or observer as participant pros and cons

Answer 68

the investigator has the advantage of being a “known incompetent”; as a result, insiders (i.e., group members) will “teach [them] things [and] tell [them] things they would never tell one another” (Schwartz and Jacobs 1979:55). Adopting the role of the “ethnographic stranger” (Fine 2019) rather than passing as a group member allows for some analytic distance. The disadvantage of these roles is that the very marginality that allows the researcher to appear as incompetent prevents them from gaining an insider’s experience of the group.

Question 69

complete observer pros and cons

Answer 69

because the complete observer has to rely on what they notice and overhear in the setting, they may misinterpret the meanings that behaviour and interactions have for the participants.

Question 70

Storylines

Answer 70

Your storyline is the explanation you provide to individuals in the setting about the purpose of your research and how you would like to participate.

Question 71

gatekeeper

Answer 71

Individuals who have the power to deny or grant the researcher access to a social setting, often, but not always, in an official capacity. The way you present your storyline to a gatekeeper is very important. If gatekeepers believe that the research will make their organization or themselves appear in a positive light, they will be more likely to give you access.

Question 72

bargain with gatekeeper?

Answer 72

In relation to accessing a setting for field research, a bargain is an agreement a researcher makes with a gatekeeper in exchange for permission to access a social setting. It often entails a promise of confidentiality.

Question 73

sponsor

Answer 73

Individuals who provide access to certain settings and populations in informal ways. They are often central members of their group and lend legitimacy to the researcher by vouching for them.

Question 74

An effective way to gain trust and build rapport is to?

Answer 74

adopt the attitude of a learner or take the role of an “incompetent”. Asking questions at this stage will show that you respect the knowledge of your participants and communicate your genuine interest in their affairs.

Question 75

incorporation

Answer 75

The process through which members of a research setting define the researcher’s role or social place in the setting.

Question 76

spatial fusion

Answer 76

Spatial fusion occurs when two or more spaces, physically distant from one another, become symbolically connected and conceived of as components of the same place.

Question 77

virtual ethnography

Answer 77

In-depth study of an online group or culture in which researchers use online communities as research settings.

Question 78

challenges of virtual ethnography unique to the online environment

Answer 78

First, deception by participants is fairly common online. Therefore, the researcher cannot be sure that what people say about themselves bears any resemblance to their reality offline. Yet, when the researcher’s goal is to study an online culture, what matters is the definition the members of the culture have of each other. Second, the researcher must decide whether to “lurk” or to participate. It is quite common for many members of a list to lurk, to read messages without ever being visible. If the virtual ethnographer decides to participate, they must also consider how to develop an appropriate online persona. This step might include creating a signature, an avatar, or even a website (Hine 2008). These preparations mirror those that any ethnographer must consider before approaching a social setting or community.

Question 79

cyber-ethnography

Answer 79

In-depth study of an online group or culture in which researchers use online communities as research settings.

Question 80

tiny public

Answer 80

Small associations of individuals that, as sources of integration, can be “the cornerstone of social order” though which “societal life is shaped” (Fine 2012: 2-3).

Question 81

closed-ended or forced-choice questions

Answer 81

A question that limits the possible responses to options provided by the researcher. Closed-ended questions are characteristic of quantitative surveys.

Question 82

in-depth interviews

Answer 82

A directed conversation in which an interviewer encourages a participant or participants to describe their social world in their own terms. Unlike standardized interviews, the purpose of in-depth interviews is to allow people to explain their experiences, attitudes, feelings, and definitions of the situation in their own terms and in ways that are meaningful to them.

Question 83

standardized interviews

Answer 83

Thoroughly scripted interviews that aim to collect quantitative data by asking interviewees to choose from a list of predetermined responses. They are most useful when the researcher wants to collect simple, straightforward answers. often to test hypotheses. Standardized interviews are most useful when the researcher wants information that is unambiguous and knows the “very thing” that they want to uncover questionnaire This type of interview assumes that the researcher can minimize or eliminate bias by making everything in the interview uniform. It functions on a stimulus–response model that suggests that if you standardize the stimulus (that is, the questions and the way that the interviewer reads them), the variations in answers represent a true measure of what you are investigating

Question 84

limitations of standardized interviews

Answer 84

Standardized interviews provide only a rough sketch of respondents’ true situations and cannot uncover any unexpected data. They further note that the basic assumptions of standardized interviews—those assumptions that make these interviews useful when conducting quantitative research—stand in direct opposition to the qualitative researcher’s goal of obtaining complex, participant-defined data. To begin with, the standardized interview takes for granted that all respondents will understand and relate to the questions in the way in which the researcher intended. In other words, it assumes validity across various social contexts The standardized interview also presumes that the response options provided by the researcher will be exhaustive and that they will not inadvertently exclude other valid answers that the interviewee might provide Similarly, standardized interviews assume that the researcher can construct mutually exclusive responses to the survey questions.

Question 85

active interviews

Answer 85

An approach to conducting an interview in which the researcher analyzes not only what is said but how it is said. It focuses on the interactive process as a source of data that the researcher can analyze to understand the social world of participants.

Question 86

feeling rules

Answer 86

Guidelines that direct how we want to try to feel in a particular situation. First developed by Arlie Hochschild in relation to flight attendants, the concept is used by sociologists to describe many situations.

Question 87

snowball sampling

Answer 87

A method of selecting individuals to take part in a study in which the researcher identifies initial participants and then asks them to introduce the researcher to others who fit the sample criteria.

Question 88

probes

Answer 88

In in-depth interviews, probes are follow-up questions that ask the participant to elaborate on, explain, or provide a story about what they have said.

Question 89

common pitfalls

Answer 89

Don’t make your participants feel as though they are being interrogated. Avoid using questions that begin with the word why. Never ask leading or loaded questions. Another type of question to avoid is the double-barrelled question. Finally, avoid closed-ended questions (mentioned earlier), especially ones that lead to one of only two possible answers.

Question 90

double-barrelled question

Answer 90

A question that includes two or more sub-questions.

Question 91

Photo elicitation

Answer 91

The use of photographs in interviews to facilitate discussion. Sometimes researchers take the photographs themselves, and sometimes they ask research participants to take the photos.

Question 92

Asking participants to take photographs serves two purposes:

Answer 92

(1) it starts the participants thinking about the topic; and (2) it allows them to bring into the research what is meaningful to them

Question 93

OCAP + self determination

Answer 93

ownership control access possession

Question 94

what happened in the Tuskegee study?

Answer 94

The Tuskegee study failed to provide informed consent. The men were not informed about the purpose of the study, and many did not understand they had syphilis nor received treatment. Secondly, non-maleficence was violated as the researchers supported the spread of the disease by withholding treatment for syphilis – penicillin was available. Finally, the researchers did not treat the participants with respect, or dignity. The study was discriminatory towards a certain already-marginalized minority group – African American men. Moreover, the study also failed to provide any benefit to the men involved. The study was initially designed to observe the natural progression of untreated syphilis in African American men. However, the participants were not told they had syphilis and were not given proper treatment even after the discovery of penicillin as a cure for the disease. As a result, many of the participants developed severe health problems, including blindness, heart disease, and death. The study was finally exposed to the public in 1972 and was widely condemned for its unethical practices and disregard for human life. The study resulted in the enactment of the National Research Act in 1974, which established the institutional review board system to oversee human research studies in the United States. The Tuskegee syphilis study serves as a reminder of the importance of ethical considerations in medical research and the need to protect the rights and well-being of study participants.

Question 95

who produced the first qualitative studies that relied on an ethnographic style of fieldwork?

Answer 95

chicago school of sociology

Question 96

hip hop-eration

Answer 96

Hip Hop-eration is a documentary film that tells the inspiring story of a group of senior citizens from New Zealand who form a hip hop dance group and travel to Las Vegas to compete in an international hip hop competition. The group, whose members range in age from 66 to 96, is led by their charismatic dance instructor, Billie Jordan. Despite facing numerous challenges, including physical limitations and financial constraints, the group perseveres and becomes a sensation in their community and around the world. The film documents their journey as they train, perform, and ultimately compete in the competition, showcasing their energy, determination, and love for life. Along the way, the film highlights the importance of community, the power of dance, and the limitless potential of the human spirit, no matter what age. First, the film provides a rich and detailed portrayal of the lives and experiences of the senior citizens in the hip hop dance group. Through interviews, observations, and interactions with the participants, the film captures the nuances of their culture, values, and beliefs, and provides insight into their perspectives and ways of life. This aligns with the key goals of ethnography, which is to gain a deep understanding of a particular group or community and to provide an emic perspective that reflects the insider's point of view. Second, the documentary illustrates the importance of building relationships and trust with research participants. Billie Jordan, the group's dance instructor, develops close relationships with the seniors, earning their trust and respect over time. This is an essential aspect of ethnography, which involves building rapport and establishing a sense of mutual understanding with the people being studied.

Question 97

vicious dog-hearing Calgary courts center

Answer 97

The Vicious Dog Hearing is a legal process that is aimed at protecting the public from dangerous dogs, while also ensuring that responsible dog owners are able to keep their pets. The hearing provides an opportunity for all parties to present evidence and for a judge to make a fair and impartial decision based on the facts of the case.

Question 98

eco-warriors movement?

Answer 98

Overall, the eco-warriors movement raises important ethical considerations for qualitative research, including informed consent, confidentiality, and reflexivity.

Question 99

5 types of descriptive questions?

Answer 99

1) Grand Tour Questions 2) Mini Tour Questions 3) Example Questions 4) Experience Questions 5) “Native” language Questions

Question 100

pretest consent process?

Answer 100

Explain the purpose of the study Describe the interview process Discuss confidentiality Obtain written consent Address any questions or concerns

Question 101

SOLER?

Answer 101

sitting open lean eye contact relax