midterm Flashcards

Question

Structure vs level oriented

Answer 1

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 3. The distinction between structure-oriented and level-oriented studies. *In structure-oriented studies the focus is on the meaning of a variable and relationships among variables. *E.g., cross-cultural study of depression •Level-oriented studies examine the size of cross-cultural differences. •E.g., comparing Americans and Chilean school children in test anxiety.

Answer 2

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 1.The inclusion of contextual factors including demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the participants or their culture. E.g., comparing Canadians and Vietnamese on self-esteem.

Answer 3

METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 1.The inclusion of contextual factors including demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the participants or their culture. E.g., comparing Canadians and Vietnamese on self-esteem. 2. The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies. *In exploratory studies no prior ideas are formulated about cultural differences and similarities. *Exploratory studies are helpful in initial stages of research. *E.g., cross-cultural study of visual illusion (River, 1901) 2.The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies. *In hypothesis-testing studies theories or models about the relationship between psychological and cultural phenomena are specified at beforehand and tested for accuracy. *E.g., examining generalizability of a Western model of personality, The Five-Factor Model of personality, in a non-Western society. METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 3. The distinction between structure-oriented and level-oriented studies. *In structure-oriented studies the focus is on the meaning of a variable and relationships among variables. *E.g., cross-cultural study of depression METHODOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 3. The distinction between structure-oriented and level-oriented studies. *Level-oriented studies examine the size of cross-cultural differences. *E.g., comparing Americans and Chilean school children in test anxiety.

Answer 4

2.The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies. *In hypothesis-testing studies theories or models about the relationship between psychological and cultural phenomena are specified at beforehand and tested for accuracy. *E.g., examining generalizability of a Western model of personality, The Five-Factor Model of personality, in a non-Western society. 2. The distinction between exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies. *In exploratory studies no prior ideas are formulated about cultural differences and similarities. *Exploratory studies are helpful in initial stages of research. *E.g., cross-cultural study of visual illusion (River, 1901) THE ISLANDS IN TORRES STRAITS MÜLLER-LYER ILLUSION

Answer 5

Socio-emotional development The family and peers are two of the major social contexts of socio-emotional development for adolescents (chen 1998) Parental warmth has universal existence but the level of parental warmth is not the same across cultures Lower expression of warmth in industrialized societies than traditional societies Lack of parental warmth has universal association with negative psychosocial outcomes Adolescents in different cultures spend different amounts of time with their peers

Answer 6

Three models of family-first The family model of interdependence This is the case especially in societies with low levels of affluence, particularly with rural agrarian people or low income groups in urban or semi urban areas It develops in socio-economic contexts where there is an economic utilitarian value is associated with one’s children (e.g., old age security benefits for parents) This is also the context where fertility is the highest and in context of poverty where child mortality is high This model is obedience oriented; children are expected to obey what parents want Intergenerational interdependence is manifested through the family life cycle Three models of family- second The family model of independence It develops affluent contexts where there is an economic cost associated with one’s children There are psychological values for having children This is also the context where child fertility and mortality is low This model is self-reliance and independence oriented More permissiveness than obedience Three family models- third The family model of psychological interdependence It reflects urbanization and socio-economic development around the world It reflects psychological (emotional) interdependencies Child rearing involves control rather than permissiveness and autonomy rather than obedience is valued The autonomy of the growing child becomes adaptive to urban lifestyles and is no longer a threat to family livelihood, given decreased material interdependencies

Answer 7

A. the universality of adolescence as a distinct life-period In almost all societies there is a notion of adolescence (schlegel 1991) In most of the societies, the beginning of adolescence is marked by initiation ceremonies, or rites of passage, that are major public events Most non-industrialized societies around the world hold rites of passage ceremonies Themes of initiation ceremonies are typically consistent with the eventual adult responsibilities in the various societies Some rituals tend to be painful B. the universality of adolescence as a period of “storm and stress” (hall 1996) The beginning of adolescence involves major physical transitions In industrialized societies there is a disjunction between biology and society has the potential to create a difficult transitional period for adolescents (chen, 2002) In agrarian societies children start early to assume responsibilities Most adolescents live a life with few serious personal or social problems, but for a minority of adolescents, adolescence still represents the most troubling years. That is the case in industrialized and non-indsustrialized nations Role of culture Culture has influence on three areas of adolescent development Physical development Cognitive development Socio-emotional development Physical development There is cross-cultural variations in the onset of puberty in girls The onset of menstruation in girls has been declining in the past 140 years (chen, 2002) every decade girls have their puberty 4 months earlier on average Nutrition is a major contributor to this variation Cognitive development Piaget stage theory of cognitive development The qualitative aspects of the theory (the sequence of the stages) appear to be valid across cultures (Dasen, 1977). However, quantitative aspects (the timing of progression throught the stages) appears to vary greatly across cultures Intelligence Cross-cultural differences have also been found in adolescent school achievement Adolescents from asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and China perform at a higher level on academic work than their counterparts in other parts of the world Factors that account for East Asians superior school achievement are the cultural value of education, cultural beliefs in the positive outcomes of hard work (rather than ability), high parental expectations, dynamic classroom instruction, and more time devoted to academic work in and outside of school (Stevenson, 1993)

Answer 8

In most of the societies, the beginning of adolescence is marked by initiation ceremonies, or rites of passage, that are major public events Most non-industrialized societies around the world hold rites of passage ceremonies Themes of initiation ceremonies are typically consistent with the eventual adult responsibilities in the various societies Some rituals tend to be painful Gential operations, female genital circumsision Extensive tattooing, ex tribes in indonesia Lip plate, suri women in ethiopia, done a few years before girl is married off, the bigger the lip plate the more cattle given when married Neck rings, neck stretching of paduang tribe of myanmar, the practice of wearing coil of brass rings around the neck Extensive tattooing in mentawai tribe in indonesia Lips and breast augmentation Butt augmentation

Answer 9

A semantic domain is a range of potential meanings of a word In language, a basic category of meaning that becomes elaborated into many words that denote slight differences within the category is called a semantic domain In English, the 3000 words for colours are the semantic domain of the nine basic colours Cultural differences in the richness of semantic domains help us discover what the people of each culture deem to be important in their daily lives Hanunoo people Cultural demands are the driving force behind the linguistic richness of certain semantic domains Conklin (1955) studied the Hanunoo people of Midori Island in the Philippines and found their colour classification contains only white, black, red, and green (day, night, earth, and forest) Many words for ice and snow Elaborate semantic domains develop in any area of life that is culturally important to a society The Eskimo have many different terms that belong to the semantic domain of ice The Eskimo of Alaska has more than 160 names for kinds of ice. Keeping track of the many differences in ice was important to their hunting life in the Arctic In Eskimo languages, multiple affixes are added to the two words for snow and create many words for snow

Answer 10

Kim (1994) developed a theory of conversational constraints It states that speakers within collectivistic cultures would constrain themselves not to hurt the hearer’s feelings and not to impose themselves on others (ingroup). Within individualist nations on the otherhand, speakers constraint themselves by favouring clarity of expression Study by Kim et al Compare Japan and Korea with america conversation-wise Found that Americans focus on clarity and if the other person understands Koreans and japanese care more about not offending the other person

Answer 11

Hall (1966) proposed that in low-context cultures, communication is treated as a relatively separate event without much reference to the particular interpersonal context within which it occurs. In contrast, in high-context cultures communications are treated as integrally linked to the context of relationships within which they occur. In Russia it can be offensive to explain things clearly as it assumes the reader is dumb

Answer 12

Non-verbal communication Non-verbal communication (i.e., body language) is more likely than verbal communication to be misunderstood across-culturally Proximity and self-construal Sussman and Rosefield (1982) found that previously unacquainted Venezuelan negotiators sat closer than US negotiators who in turn sat closer than the Japanese negotiators Independent self-construal predicts greater spatial distance during seated conversations among Europeans (holland, 2004) Gesture There is substantially more gesturing in some nations than others Hand gestures Low gesture rates are expected to be associated with greater formality and high power distance cultures Smile Thailand is often referred to as the land of the smiles Thais really do smile, or yim, a lot There are 13 different Thai smiles Functions of smile Instead of showing an emotion like anger or anxiety, Thais tend to simply smile Smile, or Yim, serves as saving face Silence Silence can be thought of as an extreme example of high-context communication Hasegawa and Gudykunst (1998) compared American and Japanese attitudes toward silence Distinction between communicating with close friends vs. strangers Two dimensions of silence: using silence strategically vs. viewing silence negatively Hasegawa findings Japanese reported being silent more frequently than Americans Japanese reactions to silence varied depending on whether they were with friends but Americans’ reactions did not vary Americans reported more strategic use of silence than did the Japanese

Answer 13

Culture and status Three factors effects the relationship between culture and status 1. The social status of every human being in every society can either be achieved or ascribed 2. By becoming a member of different groups, people may accept more than one social status 3. Even in the most advanced democracies, there is discrimination based on gender, age, ethnicity, and/or religion Reflecting on privileges

Answer 14

Majority come from developing to developed move to neighbouring or same region Where do immigrants come from? 80% of the world’s migrants come from developing regions The top three regions of origin are developing Latin America (18%), developing Eastern Europe and Central Asia (16%), and the Middle East and North Africa (14%) Where do immigrants go? 48% of the world’s migrants have moved from developing to developed countries 32% of the world’s migrants have moved from developing to developing countries 17% of the world’s migrants have moved from developed to developed countries 3% of the world’s migrants have moved from developed to developing countries

Answer 15

Benefits of migrants 1. Economical growth; fill in gaps in labour market; immigrants create jobs; pay taxes; add diversity to the economy Net fiscal effects of immigration (the taxes migrants pay minus the benefits and government services they receive), tend to be quite small and positive for most OECD countries 2. Population growth; fertility in the developed regions, fell below the replacement level of 2.1 births per woman shortly before 1980, and stands currently at 1.7 births per woman Migration is the only driver of population growth in the developed regions starting in 2020

Answer 16

GENDER EMPOWERMENT MEASURES *Gender Empowerment Measures (GEM) consists of: 1. Women’s share of seats in parliament 2.Women’s share of administrative/managerial and professional/technical jobs 3. Women’s earning power

Answer 17

INDICES OF EQUALITY (GLOBAL GENDER GAP) *Literacy It is desirable to have an equal number of men and women who are literate. *Management positions Worldwide, the percentage of women in management positions is far less than 50%. *Earnings Worldwide, on average women earn less than what men earn for identical jobs. GENDER GAP RANKING *According to the Global Gender Gap report (World Economic Forum, 2023), five countries which scored highest on gender gap were: Afghanistan, Chad, Algeria, Iran, Pakistan *Five countries which scored lowest on gender gap were: *Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, & New Zealand Example of gender inequality; japan, 125

Answer 18

Polyandry Fewer than 0.5% of human societies have practiced polyandry Women with multiple male partners Throughout tibet and the neighbouring himalayan areas of india, nepal, and bhutan, polyandry has been common for generations Fraternal polyandry; brothers of one family all marry the same women Polyandry is a way of minimizing population growth and coping with scarce resources

Answer 19

Live in southwestern Niger (sub-sahara, west africa) through northern nigeria and northeastern cameroon Wodaabe people consider themselves the most beautiful people on earth Practice polygamy Gender relation is reversed Some gender roles are reversed amongst this ethnic group. Beauty contest for Wodaabe Men

Answer 20

Perceptions Perception refers to the process of organizing various sensations into meaningful patterns Auditory perception; the first cords of the song able to identify song Visual perception; flag of france vs flag of netherlands Perception of depth Perception of depth refers to the organization of sensations in three dimensions, even though the image on the eye’s retina is two dimensional Devil's tuning fork example; drawing by memory

Answer 21

Includes; Sensation Perception States of consciousness

Answer 22

Sensation refers to the process of stimulation of receptor cells and transmission of information to brain centres Absolute threshold; the minimum amount of physical energy needed to perceive sensation Sensory adaptation; stimuli stays the same and sensory gets habituated and does not perceive it

Answer 23

Perception of colour The three universal dimensions of colour are: hue, brightness and saturation According to language related theories of colour perception, in every language, there are words that are linked to various units of the visible spectrum There are languages that lack certain words for particular colours 39 words for green The zulus have 39 one word concepts for green Wet green, dry green, shining green, river green etc Colour preference There are universal trends in people's feelings about colour Red; anger, love, danger, blood Red was perceived as being salient and active, black and grey is bad; white, blue, and green as good; yellow, white, and grey were as passive Colour related idioms In english “feeling blue”; sadness In portuguese “everything is blue”; everything is going well In german, a man who is “blue”; someone intoxicated In arabic having a “blue day”; having a bad day In russian, a “blue” man is; a gay man In at least a dozen languages, blue blood; aristoctacy/royalty

Answer 24

Hall suggested that cultures differ in their time perspective and orientation Diaz-guerrero studied perception of time amongst mexicans and americans Participants had to estimate when a minute had elapsed Mexicans on average reported it had elapsed after 1.5 mins vs americans who reported after 0.8 minutes Developed nations more concerned with time, less developed less concerned Not unheard of trains to be few hours late in indonesia, saying “time is rubber” can be stretched Dealing with time One way to get an idea of how people deal with time, is to ask whether they show different behaviours to different people in terms of time Time as commodity Time in the european and north american cultures is treated as a commodity. “Time is money!” Hamermesh conducted a cross cultural analysis of time Participants were affluent people in the US, germany, australia, canada, and south korea It was found that people express dissatisfaction about the lack of time they experience as their incomes rise

Answer 25

Refers to the subjective awareness of one’s own sensations, perceptions, and other mental events The idea of individual consciousness as dependent on socialization experiences and other cultural factors was developed throughout the 20th century People live within a behavioural environmen, a mental representation of time, space, and the interpersonal world Cultural beliefs and practices shape the individuals behavioural environment

Answer 26

Altered states of consciousness refers to mystic, perceptual, and sensory experiences, such as meditation, hypnosis, trance, intoxication, and possession Trance is a sleeplike state characterized with reduced sensitivity to stimuli, loss or alteration of knowledge, and automatic motor activity Visionary ex hallucination vs. possession trance ex occupied by a spirit Visionary more common amongst men, possession more common amongst women Enduring pain in the altered state Several religious groups consider trance as a part of their regular religous experience Inducing trance experience Evoking trance states and similar experiences in laboratory settings Stimulating temporal lobes with a weak magnetic field Participants reported feelings of eternal presence, serenity and wisdom Trance is associated with the release of the brains serotonin and opiates in the body, which induces a temporary state of elation, euphoria, and excitement

Answer 27

The dualists believe in independent existence of body and soul The monists believe in the inseperability of the body and soul

Answer 28

Cross-cultural psychology is essentially psychology but expanded globally, beyond national borders. This field is interested in cultural comparisons and searching for the universality of psychological processes, or what is similar or different across cultures. However, as you might guess, there is no one accepted definition of cross-cultural psychology (remember that there is no one definition of culture that everyone agrees with, either). Yet, the following definition is frequently cited: “Cross-cultural psychology is the study of similarities and differences in individual psychological functioning in various cultural and ethnocultural groups”. Accordingly, this definition states that cross-cultural research in psychology involves comparative investigating of psychological principles in other cultures and/or with people from different ethnic groups.

Answer 29

Cultural psychology is the closest field to cross-cultural psychology and is concerned with human psychological processes within a cultural context. Cole (1996) describes several main characteristics of cultural psychology and states that cultural psychology emphasizes the importance of historical and everyday life events in understanding individual behaviour. Within this perspective, culture and psychological process are not independent of each other; rather, they are deeply connected and cannot be studied in isolation. In other words, culture is not something that is out there and is the cause of psychological process. Overall, cultural psychologists strive to develop a deep understanding of the behaviours of human beings in the unique cultural context that they are grounded Although both cultural psychology and cross-cultural psychology focus on the relevance of culture in understanding human behaviour, the two are different in their approach to culture. Cross-cultural psychology examines similarities and differences of individual behaviours across cultures and, therefore, is comparative in nature. The aim of cross-cultural psychology is to identify universal psychological characteristics that can be found in a large number of populations while highlighting cultural factors that impact psychological development and expression of behaviours. However, discovering universal psychological characteristics is not a goal of cultural psychology. Cultural psychology tends to use qualitative methods to capture the complexity of psychological phenomena (e.g., self-concept, memory, intimacy, emotional expression) that are embedded in the cultural context. Qualitative methods allow for developing a deeper and a more comprehensive understanding of psychological concepts rooted in their specific culture. However, cross-cultural psychology tends to use quantitative methodology in order to make general statements about how cultural factors relate to psychological factors

Answer 30

Those who study multicultural psychology tend to conduct research on different ethnic groups or on people with different cultural backgrounds who live in a pluralistic nation (Lonner et al., 2019). This includes the study of the perception of discrimination, prejudice, and aggressive behaviour of different groups within the border of a nation. If we put all that together, we can define multicultural psychology as the systematic study of all aspects of human behaviour that occurs in settings where people of different backgrounds interact. Multicultural psychologists are concerned with “the psychological reactions of individuals and groups caught up in culturally heterogeneous settings,” including the “behaviours, perceptions, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes” that result from living in such conditions

Answer 31

The notion that multiculturalism is the fourth force suggests that this perspective will have just as big an impact on the field of psychology as the first three forces: psychoanalysis, behaviourism, and humanism In other words, calling multiculturalism the fourth force challenges us to acknowledge that a) all behaviour occurs in and is impacted by a cultural context; b) until recently, this fact has virtually been ignored by the field; and c) once we understand the nature and contribution of culture, this understanding will dramatically alter and expand the way we study and understand behaviour.

Answer 32

Our definition of multicultural psychology is concerned with culture contact, or what happens when people of different backgrounds interact with one another. Bochner (1999) defined culture contact as “critical incidents where people from different cultural, ethnic, or linguistic backgrounds come into social contact with each other” (p. 22) and described two broad categories of contacts: 1. contacts that occur between members of a culturally diverse society or between people of many different backgrounds who live and work together on a daily basis; and 2. contacts that occur when people from one society visit another country, for purposes such as business, tourism, study, or assistance (e.g., Canadian Red Cross). Multicultural psychology is interested in both types of cultural contact, although it emphasizes the first type. One important line of inquiry within the field of multicultural psychology is the examination of adjustment of newcomers in the society of settlement

Answer 33

In sum, quantitative research involves collecting numerical data and conducting statistical analysis in order to find patterns of relationships between study variables. One type of quantitative research method is correlational research, which examines the relation between study variables without making a causal inference. In other words, in correlational research, the results indicate that A is related to B, but it cannot be established that A causes B. In order to make a causal inference, experimental research is conducted where an independent variable is manipulated in order to examine its effect on a dependent variable.

Answer 34

two common experimental research designs are cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Cross-sectional designs gather data across different age groups. For example, if we wanted to know whether people become more conservative as they grow older, we might collect data from individuals in their twenties, thirties, forties, fifties, sixties, and seventies to see whether the participant responses are more conservative in later age groups than in earlier age groups. One problem with this kind of research, however, is that it may not accurately characterize the progression of political thought. Younger people may feel more liberal about some issues, and older people may feel more conservative about them. The longitudinal design follows a certain set of individuals over time. Thus, to find out about liberal and conservative attitudes, we might want to collect data on 20-year-old individuals and then follow them for 60 years to see whether their attitudes become more conservative. A disadvantage of this research design is the length of time it takes to collect and analyze the data. Researchers must have the vision to design such a study when they are very young, the funding to sustain the research, and the patience to wait 60 years for the results. Over the course of the study, some participants may pass away, and researchers may also pass away. Another disadvantage of this research is that the cohort of individuals may be unusual. For example, individuals who grew up during war and political volatility (e.g., the Iraq War, the War in Afghanistan, or the refugee crisis) may have an entirely different world view than individuals who grew up during various pandemics, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and COVID-19. Research in aging has long advocated sequential designs in studying elderly populations (Nesselroade & Labouvie, 1985). The sequential design is a combination of the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

Answer 35

Construct bias means that the construct that is being studied across cultures is not identical. For example, although the meaning of happiness is different across cultures, when Oishi and colleagues (Oishi et al., 2013) compared the definition of happiness in dictionaries from 30 countries, the results indicated a similarity: in 24 out of the 30 nations, “luck” or “fortune” was part of the definition. However, there are some notable cross-cultural differences. For instance, there are differences between countries that speak the same language. In Guatemala, the definition of happiness includes luck and fortune, but in Spain, Argentina, and Ecuador, the definition does not include luck and fortune. Similarly, while in Australia the definition of happiness also encompasses luck and fortune, in the US it does not. (Canada was not included in the study.) Therefore, sensitive measures that capture people’s perspectives are vital when conducting cross-cultural research.

Answer 36

Method bias refers to three biases: sample bias, instrument bias, and administration bias (He & van de Vijver, 2012).

Answer 37

Sample bias occurs when samples that are not equivalent and have different characteristics are compared (He & van de Vijver, 2012). For example, comparing university students in Culture A with farmers in Culture B is a sample bias, as the two samples have different characteristics and are not equivalent. Even when samples in both cultures are university students, sample bias may still occur. This is because going to university and gaining post-secondary education is a norm and more accessible in developed nations, such as Canada, than in developing nations, such as Malawi, where 85 per cent of the population live in rural areas and access to higher education is highly limited.

Answer 38

Instrument bias refers to the degree of familiarity with an instrument across cultures (He & van de Vijver, 2012). For example, university students in Canada are familiar with questions listed in multiple choice format. However, such a method of inquiry is rarely used among students of a theological seminary in Iran. Therefore, the Canadian students have an advantage over the Iranian students if multiple choice questions are used as a method of investigation.

Answer 39

A type of instrument bias is response style bias, which refers to the tendency to agree rather than disagree with a statement and to use the endpoint of a scale (Dolnicar & Grun, 2007; Lentz, 1938). This means that participants’ responses to items are not a reflection of the content of the items but rather a reflection of their cultural or other demographic backgrounds, which leads to biased results. Cultural differences in response style have been well documented (He & van de Vijver, 2012; Smith & Fischer, 2008). For example, Dolnicar and Grun (2007), in their study of a sample of university students, found that Australian students tend to use the extreme points of scales (i.e., strongly disagree or strongly agree) more than Asian students do.

Answer 40

Item bias refers to the different meanings that an item could have across cultures. Van de Vijver and Meiring (2011) provide an example of item bias with this sentence: “I never [t]ake a long trip without checking the safety of my car.” Although this item makes sense for Canadian university students, it does not apply to students who are in developing countries, as many do not have a car, and even if they do, public transport—mainly bus transport—is used for long trips. Using a car to compare the risk avoidance behaviour of Canadian students with students in a developing country is problematic as the response score of this item means different things in each culture.

Answer 41

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic Most theories in psychology are based on studies with people from WEIRD (western, educated, industrial, rich, democratic) nations. Limitation? These theories may not be true for all people, regardless of gender, ethnicity, culture, socio-economic status, or lifestyle Cross-cultural psychology addresses this limitation by studying people of different cultural backgrounds

Answer 42

The Schwartz value theory has been highly influential in psychology as he established the individual-level value framework “Values and normative systems are the core aspects of societal culture. Culture also includes beliefs and practices”- Schwartz 2014 Culture is external Schwartz argues that: 1. Societal culture is a latent, hypothetical construct 2. Societal culture is external to the individual 3. Societal culture underlies and is expressed in the functioning of societal institutions, in their organizations, practices, and policies,

Answer 43

As we discussed earlier, women’s world views are often different from men’s, especially regarding safety and work expectations. This is particularly true for girls and women of colour: -shadism - mental health issues related to women, including a higher incidence of depression, postpartum depression, and eating disorders -impact that violence can have on women’s views of the world -Gender differences in expression of humour were also found, with men being more likely than women to display humour -Although psychologists often note the differences between men and women, it is important to note that there are more gender similarities than one would expect

Answer 44

Some LGBTQ2+ individuals must operate in an environment in which they do not know whether they will be accepted or rejected by their families (Hancock, 2003). On the one hand, if they are rejected by their families of origin, think of the world views that may result: because people whom they love and trust the most have rejected them, they may end up not trusting anyone or at least having a very difficult time doing so. On the other hand, those who do accept them may be considered a family of choice as opposed to their family of origin, and, as a result, they may be much more loyal to their family of choice. Ever since Caitlyn Jenner (formerly Bruce Jenner) announced to the world that she was transgender (Bissinger, 2015), the topic of transgender individuals has been of interest in the broader society. However, there are still not many role models for females transitioning to males. Thus, transgender individuals are still searching for how to develop their respective world views

Answer 45

The world view based on social class can vary widely depending on how many resources people have. You might recall from your introductory psychology courses that Abraham Maslow had a theory based on a hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1970), where one must address one’s basic needs (e.g., food, water, safety) before addressing higher needs, such as self-esteem, aesthetics, and self-actualization. People who are in the upper class and are financially secure can feel freer to pursue ways to self-actualize—or realize their highest potential as a person—whereas those who are in the lower classes necessarily are concerned with putting food on the table and a roof over their heads. Such pursuit of very different needs necessarily will lead to different views of the world. Poverty can have a lasting effect on one’s world view In the 1980s, nuclear war between the United States and the Soviet Union was a real possibility. The world was viewed as dangerous, and drop drills were routine. This drill was to protect children from a nuclear blast in the hopes that some would survive an atom bomb dropped in their proximity. Youth tend to have a different world view than older generations. Around the world, youth activism is an important part of creating change and re-examining policy and norms. The 2012 Idle No More movement in Canada sparked Indigenous youth to seek reconciliation and solidarity from the Canadian government through a series of political rallies and protests (Friedel, 2015). There has also been an overwhelming global movement among youth demanding action on climate change policies, most notably through the Fridays for Future campaign. This campaign was founded by Greta Thunberg, a teenage Swedish activist who has gained recognition across the globe for her efforts to stop climate change

Answer 46

There is a notion of White privilege in Canadian society. White privilege means that those who are Caucasian can assume that characterizations and images of them will appear widely in the society. People of colour—including Black people, Indigenous Peoples, and immigrants—cannot assume the same thing, particularly with respect to positive images. Ryan Coogler, the African-American director of Black Panther, indicated that when he was growing up and it came time to wear a costume for Halloween, there were no superhero costumes representing someone who was Black

Answer 47

British philosopher Paul Grice (1975) proposes a set of conversational rules that guide people’s conversations (see Table 4.1). Grice suggests that we all engage in what is called the co-operative principle, that is, we strive to communicate with one another sincerely and effectively. He proposed four maxims that guide such conversations: quality, quantity, relevance, and manner.

Answer 48

The maxim of quality suggests that whenever we engage in a conversation, we strive to be truthful. Because you and I are engaged in a co-operative conversational relationship, you expect me to tell you the truth or give you my honest opinion on the topic we are discussing. If you can never be certain that I am telling you the truth, you may choose to break off our conversation. Alternatively, if you do not know that I am telling you a lie, we are not engaged in a co-operative relationship: I am manipulating you.

Answer 49

The maxim of quantity suggests that each of us should contribute an appropriate amount to our conversation. In normal conversations, two speakers are generally expected to contribute equally. Have you ever tried to talk with a partner who dominated the conversation, never allowing you to contribute? Did that irritate you? If so, you were irritated because your conversational partner violated the maxim of quantity. However, in some contexts, it is appropriate for one person to dominate the conversation. For example, on talk shows or in television interviews, the interviewee often contributes more to the conversation than the host or interviewer, who asks only brief questions to move the conversation forward. This is also true in therapy, where the client is expected to contribute more to the conversation than the therapist, who mostly listens. What other contexts can you think of in which one partner is supposed to dominate the discussion?

Answer 50

The maxim of relevance suggests that we strive to remain on topic. If we suddenly start talking about baseball during a discussion of cross-cultural psychology, we are violating the maxim of relevance because our utterance does not relate to the topic, even though it may be truthful and of an appropriate length. Some people may go into long digressions when talking, and you may wonder whether they are being relevant. Often these people get back on track and say something that ends up being relevant to the topic, but by the time they get there, they have violated the maxim of quantity. The excerpt below from an interview between Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and German public broadcaster ARD shows how the maxim of relevance can be violated: todenhöfer (t):Mr. President, members of the opposition and Western politicians say that you are the main obstacle for peace in Syria. Would you be ready to step down as president if this could bring peace to your country and stop the bloodshed? bashar al-assad (ba) [the syrian leader]:The president shouldn’t run away from challenge and we have a national challenge now in Syria. The president shouldn’t escape the situation, but from the other side you can stay as president, stay in this position only when you have the public support. So, answering this question should be answered by the Syrian people, by the election not by the president. I can nominate myself, I can run for the election or not run, but to leave or not to leave, this is about the Syrian people. The excerpt above shows how Assad flouted the maxim of relevance. Todenhöfer implied that Assad’s immediate step-down would bring peace and stop bloodshed in the country. His question was not about the presidential election but, rather, about Assad resigning as president. However, Assad replied that the one to decide the fate of a leader would be the Syrian people through election, not the president himself. However, in order to follow the maxim of relevance, Assad should have indicated whether he would step down. Instead, he consciously made his answer irrelevant to the topic

Answer 51

The maxim of manner suggests that people should be clear in their communication and pay attention to normal standards of conduct. This is the broadest maxim and can include a wide range of issues. For example, you would not discuss quantum mechanics with a three-year-old, nor would you speak in a disrespectful manner to someone in a position of authority. You would not talk in an intentionally obscure manner, nor would you shout to someone standing less than a metre in front of you. In Canada and many other Western countries, the appropriate distance between two people engaging in a typical conversation is about half a metre, or arm’s length. It would violate the maxim of manner to stand 10 centimetres from that person’s face, and it would also be a violation if you were to stand 3 metres away.

Answer 52

high communication involves verbal and non verbal aspect, low context everything that needs to be said is communicated through verbal

Answer 53

Hanafiyeh and Afghari (2014) did an analysis of gender differences in communication, particularly of the claims made by Lakoff (1975). The results indicate that many of the previous findings hold true. This includes female participants’ more frequent use of intensifiers (e.g., “very” or “so”), hedges (e.g., “sort of” or “kind of”), and tag questions (e.g., “aren’t you?” or “you think?”), indicating a less assertive style of communication. Although research on gender and communication tends to focus on the differences between men and women, there are many similarities in their communication. For instance, the use of adverbs (e.g., badly or slowly) in order to answer questions of how or when seems to be fairly consistent between genders. In addition, it has been shown that males and females often have a great deal of non-verbal behaviours in common, including finger pointing and head nodding (Yang, 2010). Furthermore, these stereotypes of feminine versus masculine communications (for example, that women are worse at negotiating or that women are quieter than men) may actually be perpetuating the opposite communication style in women. A study by Von Hippel et al. (2011) demonstrated that when women are faced with these stereotypes about communication (e.g., men are more assertive leaders), they will sometimes adopt a more “masculine” communication style as a response (e.g., being more self-reliant, confident, and decisive). Therefore, it is difficult to tell what is truly so different in the communication of men and women when communication is such a dynamic and changing process. Similarly, it was previously argued that women use more tentative language, including qualifiers such as “I think” or “It seems to me,” than men. Qualifiers are words or phrases that soften statements and affect the certainty of the statement. For example, “I may be wrong, but I think this class is interesting.” The phrase “I may be wrong” is a qualifier. However, women use qualifiers less than before. Bongiorno et al. (2014) argues that this is a reflection of a shift in women’s roles over time. In fact, women who are more assertive tend to experience less prejudice than women who are less assertive. This is possibly because women are treated more as equals in conversation than they were in previous decades. For these reasons, the use of hesitant language by women, including qualifiers, may have become less and less rewarded and, thus, has been diminishing in frequency. Carol K. Goman (2016), in her research conducted in Canada, Europe, and the US, found that men tend to be more decisive, while women tend to be more collaborative. In addition, men tend to be better at monologue, and they signal dominant behaviour such as standing tall, expressing anger, and spreading their materials on a table while sitting. On the other hand, women tend to be better at dialogue, and they signal warm behaviour such as smiling, leaning forward, nodding their head, and orienting their body toward the listener. Goman (2016) also reported that, overall, men and women recognize similar competence and incompetence not only in themselves but also in each other and that sometimes they engage in behaviours that are in the opposite direction that these comparisons suggest. Therefore, it is important to note that these findings are about general differences between men and women, and they do not apply to every man and every woman. Indeed, differences in communication style are also a reflection of different preferences that people have. Wood (1999) emphasizes that gender differences in communication are more a product of socialization than of biology. In other words, communication isn’t gendered at all but, rather, a product of how you grew up. There seem to be two sources of such socialization: family communication and communication between playmates. Paludi (1998) suggests that this socialization occurs very early because parents respond measurably differently to boys and girls. Will et al. (1976) found that differences in socialization happened even when people only thought they were interacting with a boy or a girl. They dressed an infant in pink and referred to it as Beth and dressed the same infant in blue and referred to it as Adam. The research participants played with the infant measurably differently—for example, offering Beth a doll and Adam a toy train. Similarly, Basu et al. (2017) argue that gender is not solely based on one’s sex but that it is also a product of socialization. Stereotypical male and female behaviours are learned through this socialization process, and everything from culture, family, school, and peers can influence a person’s gender identity. Basu et al. (2017) found that boys and girls are treated differently once they enter adolescence, when gender norms become much more apparent. For example, in India, the place of a girl is expected to be in the home, whereas boys learn they have much more autonomy in their life. Therefore, it is possible that communication differences between genders are also shaped by gendered socialization since this socialization affects so many aspects of a child’s psychological development and behaviour.

Answer 54

British philosopher Paul Grice (1975) proposes a set of conversational rules that guide people’s conversations (see Table 4.1). Grice suggests that we all engage in what is called the co-operative principle, that is, we strive to communicate with one another sincerely and effectively. He proposed four maxims that guide such conversations: quality, quantity, relevance, and manner.

Answer 55

According to the United Nations definition, international immigrants are individuals who move into a country other than that of their nationality or usual residence so that the country of destination effectively becomes their new country of usual residence. Immigrants usually have some time to consider their migration. Their decision may be based on their desire to improve the lives of their families. Adult immigrants may be employed in their own country and want to apply their knowledge, expecting that their new settling country will be able to provide them a higher salary and more success than their country of origin can afford them. Other adults may have trade or professional skills and are eager to be employed. Immigrants may have a job waiting for them or at least have some assistance in finding a job Refugees are individuals that are forced to flee their country due to persecution, war, or violence. They are unable to return home or are too concerned for their safety to do so. Asylum seekers, a special class of refugees, are individuals who request international protection but whose refugee claims have not been decided on by the country in which the claim is submitted. In contrast to most immigrants, not all refugees want to leave their home countries. Often, family members who leave together do not stay together. Some die during flight, and their bodies are left behind without proper burial.

Answer 56

acculturation is a process as opposed to an outcome Acculturation, the process by which groups and individuals change as a result of intercultural interactions (Redfield et al., 1936), can indeed be difficult—spanning myriad experiences across people and over time that have important social, economic, and psychological impacts. Acculturation is clearly evident in immigrants and refugees because of the sharp differences in language, beliefs, values, and practices between groups. Acculturation is also seen within national groups, as is the case in cross-ethnic interactions within a country (e.g., Anglo-Quebecers). We focus our discussion on immigrants and refugees to help us make meaningful comparisons involving the acculturation process and facilitate further examination of cross-cultural topics.

Answer 57

According to How et al. (2018), refugees and immigrants have very different experiences when they arrive in their new settling country. Their stories of acculturation and stress may differ because of the differences in how they decided to migrate to a new country. Whether an individual is an immigrant or a refugee, support networks become one of the most important factors within a societal context to assist the acculturation process. Although employment, language, roles, and education may be important, lack of support networks can be the greatest source of stress. More specifically, certain migrating groups experience more culture shock and acculturative stress than others do. How can we explain that? Again, we go back to the question of which variables are to be taken into consideration when looking at a healthy acculturation process.

Answer 58

can be considered the other side of the acculturation coin. Through enculturation, individuals retain or deepen their learning of their own cultural norms (B. S. Kim & Abreu, 2001). There is much less research into enculturation, yet researchers in one meta-analysis reported that enculturation did not predict negative mental health outcomes such as depression, anxiety, psychological distress, and negative affect. On the contrary, enculturation predicted positive mental health outcomes, specifically self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and positive affect (Yoon et al., 2013). This finding is important because individuals connecting with their culture of origin may build important resilience in the process.

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