MIDTERM 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the tendency for one to think they are better than they actually are?
A
Self-serving bias.
2
Q
Self-serving attributions, being better than average, unrealistic optimism, false consensus and uniqueness are the 4 manifestations of what bias?
A
Self-serving bias.
3
Q
What is the name of the bias where you attribute positive outcomes to yourself and negative outcomes to outside forces?
A
Self-serving attributions.
4
Q
What is it called when you attribute success to ability or effort put in by yourself?
A
Successful self-attribution.
5
Q
What is it called to attribute negative outcomes as “bad luck”, or things that are “unfair” and out of your control?
A
Failure self-attribution.
6
Q
What is the self-serving bias in which you compare yourself to other people, believing you are better than them?
A
The above than/better than average effect.
7
Q
“I drive better than most people” is an example of what self-serving bias?
A
The above/better than average effect.
8
Q
What is the biased belief that we will always be successful in the future and less likely to have a negative future?
A
Unrealistic optimism.
9
Q
What is an example of unrealistic optimism?
A
A student assumes they will have a great job with a good salary in the future, rather than becoming an alcoholic and being in debt.
Parents assume their child will not become a drug addict.
10
Q
Overestimating the degree to which people actually agree with our personal opinions refers to which effect?
A
The false consensus effect.
11
Q
Underestimating how similar you are to other people by thinking you are more unique than them refers to which effect?
A
The false uniqueness effect.
12
Q
Why do we see bad behaviour as common?
A
We assume other people are doing it too due to the false consensus effect.
13
Q
What did the findings of the Sanitioso, R. B., & Wlodarski, R study confirm?
A
There is a desired self-perception that influences how we interpret feedback, criticism and choice of social interactions.
14
Q
Why are we biased towards positive information and able to remember it better than negative information?
A
It completes the perception of ourselves due to our underlying motivation to see ourselves as better than average.
15
Q
How was the Self-Esteem Motivation study administered?
A
People were given a fake personality test. They were told whether they were introverted or extroverted (manipulated data). They were then presented with positives and negatives of these personality types, and were asked to recall what they were.
16
Q
What bias acts as an anxiety buffer, protects from depression and creates a positive impression?
A
Self-serving bias.
17
Q
How does the self-serving bias act as an anxiety buffer?
A
It allows people to face threats with their anxiety minimized.
18
Q
How does the self-serving bias protect from depression?
A
There is an association between depression and low self-esteem and so when self-esteem is high from self-serving bias, then you can’t be depressed.
19
Q
People are more likely to accept someone that appears successful rather than a failure due to what bias that creates a positive impression?
A
Self-serving bias.
20
Q
What are some drawbacks from the self-serving bias?
A
Can lead to risky behaviours, can actually damage self-esteem (if you fail), among similar things.
21
Q
What is the self-serving bias that thinks and chooses behaviours that generate a positive impression?
A
The “I.”
22
Q
What is the “me”?
A
The “me” are all of your attributes that cannot be influenced by the “I”. It is your race, ethnicity, demographic, etc.
23
Q
What is the process of guiding your thoughts, feelings, and behaviours to reach a desired goal?
A
Self-regulation.
24
Q
What is the name for ideas that we want to achieve, that represent outcomes that we strive for in order to meet our needs and desires?
A
Goals.
25
When do we need to exert more effort to engage in self-regulation?
When the behaviour to reach the goal is not pleasant.
26
What is it called when you delay the pleasant aspects of achieving a goal in order to continue self-regulation?
Delayed gratification.
27
Limited resource capacity (expenditure of energy) can affect what?
Self-regulation.
28
What is the ability to delay gratification, overcome the many temptations, challenges, and obstacles that could stop the pursuit of long-term goals?
Willpower.
29
When do we have less willpower?
When we are under stress and when it is night time.
30
What are the findings of the Muraven, M., Rosman, H., & Gagné, M. (2007) study?
Rewards depending on success lead to greater depletion in people.
31
What is it called when the intended result has the opposite or different result?
Irony.
32
What is term for when we try to self-regulate our thoughts but actually end up emphasizing them?
The ironic processing theory.
33
What processing conflicts in the ironic processing theory?
Controlled and automatic processing.
34
What is the ironic processing theory term for the conscious attempt to suppress an unwanted thought?
The operator.
35
What is the unconscious process of looking out for the thoughts we are trying to not think of in the ironic processing theory?
The monitor.
36
What is the goal of ironic processing?
To think of something that is not the thing we do not want to think of.
37
What is the act of presenting yourself in a way so that people are more inclined to like you?
Self-presentation
38
What perspective is the idea that your identity is not stable, nor is it independent, but rather, is constantly remade as the person changes "scripts" in life?
Dramaturgical perspective.
39
What is the term for learning what is okay and not okay from our parents and peers in a specific culture?
Socialization.
40
When do roles differ?
Roles differ whether we are deliberately or automatically playing out the script.
41
A controlled attempt at making a particular impression is called what?
A cynical performance.
42
What is it called when an uncontrolled awareness of playing the into the script because it is so well rehearsed?
A sincere performance.
43
Affirming your desired self-image, affirming shared culture and motivating growth and development are the 3 broad goals of what concept?
Self-presentation.
44
What is it called to only speak about good achievements rather than failures in order to make a good impression?
Self-promotion.
45
When is modesty most effective?
When you want to display empathy.
46
What is it called to purposefully purchase expensive things and display them in order to impress others?
Conspicuous consumption.
47
Props, intimidation and lying are three ways one may choose to what?
Self-promote.
48
Self-handicapping becomes necessary when what?
When self-promotion no longer is an accurate representation of the self.
49
Your basic personality or nature, especially considered in terms of what you are really like as a person is called what?
The self.
50
What is it called when you make life difficult for yourself on purpose, so that when it actually gets difficult your self-esteem is protected. i.e Failing by choice to prevent failure by accident?
Self-handicapping.
51
What happens when someone purposely creates a barrier to succeed?
They are more likely to blame their failure on the barrier rather than themselves.
52
Denying interest in success by procrastinating, avoiding, putting in less effort is a common strategy to what?
Self-handicapping.
53
What is the name for techniques that increase desirability-- such as giving compliments, white lies, pretending to have similar interests, etc?
Ingratiation.
54
What is it called to show different parts of the self in different contexts and keeping them separate?
Audience segregation.
55
The act by which someone worries about their self-presentation in different contexts is referred to as what?
Self-monitoring.
56
What do psychologists call people who are more easily able to adjust their self-presentations based on their audience?
Social chameleons.
57
High self-monitors are good at what?
Cynical performances
58
Low self-monitors good at what?
Being themselves/sincere performances
59
What is it called when you think others are focused on you more than they actually are?
The spotlight effect.
60
The spotlight effect is a form of what bias?
Egocentric bias
61
What are the findings of the The Spotlight Effect Study by Gilovich, T., Medvec, V. H., & Savitsky, K. (2002)?
There is an Egocentric bias in estimates of the salience of one's own actions and appearance.
62
What are the two errors in self-presentation?
The spotlight effect and the illusion of transparency.
63
What is the tendency to overestimate how much people actually know about our thoughts and feelings. i.e I'm nervous, can they tell?
Illusion of transparency.
64
What is the phenomenon whereby an individual alters his or her beliefs, attitudes or behaviour to being them in accordance with those of the majority?
Conformity.
65
What are consequences necessary for a predictable, stable society?
Positive consequences.
66
What consequences promote a socially desirable behaviour, social bonding and cohesiveness?
Positive consequences.
67
Can positive consequences lead to negative outcomes?
Yes.
68
The chameleon effect and mirror neurons are two unconscious forms of what type of conformity?
Automaticity conformity.
69
What is the term for emotional contagion, or the tendency to unconsciously mimic the nonverbal mannerisms of someone with whom you are interacting–- eg. yawning, posture, smiling, laughing, tone of voice, mood?
The chameleon effect.
70
Neurons that are activated both when one performs an action and when one observes another person perform that action is called what?
Mirror neurons.
71
What are two social influences that are reasons people may conform?
Informational social influence and normative social influence.
72
Conforming because we believe that others’ interpretation of a situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action is a form of what social influence?
Informational social influence.
73
Conforming in order to be liked and accepted by others is a form of what social influence?
Normative social influence.
74
What social influence involves using others to know how to fit in?
Normative social influence.
75
When we use others as a source of information about the world, this is a form of what type of social influence?
Informative social influence.
76
What social influence satisfies our need to know what’s right, and have an accurate understanding of the world?
Informative social influence.
77
What social influence satisfies our desire to form bonds with others, to be liked; our need for affiliation?
Normative social influence.
78
The illusory movement of a single, still object in an otherwise dark and featureless room is known as?
The auto-kinetic effect.
79
Private acceptance, or conforming by altering private beliefs as well as public behaviour, is a result of what social inlfuence?
Informational social influence.
80
What social conformity occurs when the situation is ambiguous, when the situation is a crisis and when other people are experts?
informational social conformity.
81
What social influence revolves around adherence to social norms?
Normative social norms.
82
What are the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs of its members?
Social norms.
83
What are the results of the Asch conformity study?
Participants conformed on 37% of all trials, 5% conformed on every trial, 71% conformed on some trials, 24% never conformed.
84
Normative social influence leads to what?
Public compliance.
85
What is it called to only outwardly to fit in with a group without changing private beliefs–eg. “I know they’re wrong, but why should I make waves?”
Public compliance.
86
Social status, liking or admiration, number, culture, when the group is unanimous are factors in what social influence?
Normative Social Influence
87
What is more common in collectivist cultures than individualist cultures?
Conformity.
88
Conformity has a negative connotation in what culture?
Individualistic cultures.
89
Conformity has a positive connotation in what culture?
Collectivist cultures.
90
Individuation is a resistance to what?
Conformity.
91
A resistance to conformity is referred to as what?
Individuation.
92
Being seen as conformist is undesirable in what cultures?
Western cultures.
93
In individualistic cultures, people have a tendency to act in ways that express their individuality when?
When they feel they are conforming.
94
People are more likely to assert their individuality through nonconformity when they are deprived of a sense of what?
Uniqueness.
95
People who score high on this trait will be less likely to conform to majority influences.
Individuation.
96
Implicit rules about what you wear, appropriate greetings, right attitudes, personal space, dinner etiquette are what types of norms?
Informal social norms.
97
What are explicit norms (rules or laws) that are in place to ensure fairness, order, or to protect the rights of people?
Formal social norms.
98
What rules, if violated, violates fairness or the rights of others?
Formal social norms.
99
What rules, if violated, do not violate fairness or the rights of others?
Informal social norms.
100
Those who have the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience, have what?
Authority.
101
What is it called to fulfill the direct order or command of another person?
Obedience.
102
Social harmony, fairness and preservation of rights are societal benefits of what?
Obedience.
103
Social acceptance is a personal benefit of what?
Obedience.
104
What is the name for changes in behaviour or attitude that are elicited by direct request?
Compliance.
105
What is the name for an intentional effort to change other people’s attitudes in order to change their behaviour?
Persuasion.
106
What is a theory of persuasion that proposes that persuasive messages can influence attitudes (thus, behaviour) by two different routes, central or peripheral?
Elaboration Likelihood Model.
107
What is the name for the information elaboration process that goes along the central to attitude change?
High elaboration.
108
What is the name for the information process that goes along through the peripheral route?
Low elaboration.
109
What is a type of processing of a persuasive message that focuses on the message’s argument?
The central route to persuasion.
110
What is the name for the information that is pertinent, or central, to the merit of the position being advocated?
An argument.
111
What route to persuasion involves controlled, effortful processing for the person being persuaded?
Central route to persuasion.
112
Closure and confirmation bias are two barriers to what persuasion route?
The central route to persuasion.
113
What is the tendency to search for information that confirms what we already believe?
Confirmation bias.
114
What is a biased way of paying attention to rational arguments that fit your narrative?
Confirmation bias.
115
What is the name for a need to end the judgement process quickly and without extended effort put into consideration of the rational arguments?
Closure.
116
What is the route to processing of a persuasive message in which a person does not think carefully about the message’s content?
Peripheral route persuasion.
117
The source of the message, visual peripheral images and auditory peripheral sounds are what types of influential information that trigger acceptance?
Incidental cues.
118
What path to persuasion involves automatic, intuitive, effortless processing on behalf of the person being persuaded?
Peripheral route persuasion.
119
A high need for cognition is a barrier to what route to persuasion?
Peripheral route persuasion.
120
What is the name for a cognitive motivation to think about things critically and analytically?
Need for cognition.
121
Those who enjoy solving problems rationally, analyzing arguments and prefer to use the central route persuasion score high on what need?
Score high on the need for cognition.
122
Those who are more persuaded by peripheral cues, specifically the source of the message, score low on what?
The need for cognition.
123
People who are motivated and understand arguments are more likely to take what elaboration model?
The central route to persuasion.
124
People who are unmotivated, distracted, time constrained and have difficulty comprehending the arguments are more likely to take what elaboration method?
The peripheral route to persuasion.
125
When one’s mental energy is drained they become more likely to use which route to persuasion?
Peripheral Route Persuasion.
126
Reciprocity, scarcity, consistency, consensus, authority and similarity are principles of what?
Cialdini’s Principles of Persuasion
127
What are social tendencies that one can take advantage of to gain compliance to requests and tend to be associated with peripheral route persuasion?
Cialdini's Principles of Persuasion.
128
What is the automatic tendency to feel obligated to return a favour?
Reciprocity.
129
What is the uncomfortable mental state one experiences when they detect an inconsistency between an attitude and a behaviour or between two attitudes?
Cognitive dissonance.
130
What is the desire to be consistent with our self-concept and with what we have already said or done?
Consistency and commitment.
131
What is the tendency for people to look to others when faced with situations of uncertainty?
Social proof/Consensus.
132
What is it called when the more someone likes you, the more likely you will be able to persuade them?
Social liking/Similarity.
133
What is it called when people are more likely to be persuaded by a credible expert?
Authority.
134
What is it called when people feel as though they have something special, some value above the purchase price?
Scarcity.
135
What is a request strategy that involves messages transmitted at multiple stages in the compliance process?
Sequential request strategies.
136
What is a sequential request strategy that makes one more likely to agree to a big request after first agreeing to a small request (takes advantage of consistency)?
Foot-in-the-door technique.
137
What is a sequential request strategy that consists of offering something that seems reasonable or better, then changing the offer after commitment-- eg. Classic car salesman technique (takes advantage of commitment)?
Low-balling.
138
What is a sequential request strategy used to gain compliance to a small request by first asking for a large, unreasonable request (taking advantage of reciprocity)?
Door-in-the-face technique.
139
What is the name for resistance to persuasion?
Reactance.
140
What is a negative reaction to perceived threats to one’s personal freedom?
Reactance.
141
This is an example of what: When you get irritated by a pushy salesperson or an overzealous infomercial pitchman.
Reactance.
142
This is an example of what: When your parents tell you that they don’t like your new boyfriend or girlfriend.
Reactance.
143
What is the name for a favourable or unfavourable reactance toward something or someone [or yourself], exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings, and intended behaviour?
Attitudes.
144
What is the name for the evaluation/reaction of a stimulus, which can range from positive to negative?
Attitudes.
145
Belief = schema, feeling = judgement and a predisposition for behaviour = behaviour that follows logically from the beliefs and feelings are three components of what?
Attitudes.
146
There is little correspondence between what two things?
Attitude and behaviour.
147
When they represent a core component of one’s self-concept (an important attitude domain), attitudes are...?
Stronger.
148
When one has a vested interest in an issue, attitudes become...?
Stronger.
149
What are attitudes that typically do not exist in isolation, that are influenced by motivations amid a myriad of intersecting attitudes?
Competing attitudes.
150
What is the name for different attitudes about something that can predispose contradictory behaviours?
Ambivalent attitudes.
151
What is the name for different values that can predispose contradictory behaviours?
Opposing attitudes.
152
What goal of self-presentation is to convey or affirm one’s desired self-image, that can be contradictory to a desired self-image?
Self-presentation concerns.
153
Conformity and/or obedience behaviours are subject to what type of influence?
Outside influence.
154
What is a fake polygraph used to get participants to truthfully respond to emotional/affective questions in survey?
The bogus pipeline.
155
What theory suggests that behaviour is influenced by intentions?
The theory of planned behaviour.
156
What is a more successful theory predictor of future behaviour?
The theory of planned behaviour.
157
Attitudes are influenced by what?
Intentions.
158
What is the name for the plan to engage in a behaviour in the near future?
Intentions.
159
What is the idea that significant people in our lives reflect back to us who we are by how they behave towards us?
The looking-glass self.
160
1. Briefly describe (1-2 sentences each) the 3 benefits of a self-serving bias
a. Higher self-esteem acts as an anxiety buffer, which mitigates the negative health effects of chronic stress.
b. Given that there is a relationship between self-esteem and depression, higher self-esteem offers protection from depression, keeping people more motivated to keep trying.
c. Higher self-esteem creates a positive impression, which can make someone more likely to be liked, accepted, and to appear more successful.
161
2. Briefly describe (1-2 sentences each) the 3 factors that influence the degree to which attitudes are consistent with behaviours
a. Different attitudes can vary in terms of the strength or importance, and the more important or stronger attitudes tend to be better predictors of behaviour.
b. We can have ambivalent or opposing attitudes towards the same object, person or event. The ones that are stronger tend to be better predictors of behaviour.
c. Our internal attitudes can sometimes be in conflict with our desires to present a particular self to others. When attitudes are not in conflict with self-presentation concerns, they are better predictors of behaviour.
