MIDTERM 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the main characteristics of prolactin?
A
Produced by anterior pituitary in response to prolactin-releasing factor in hypothalamus.
In females – role in lactation and milk production after childbirth (rising during pregnancy in preparation).
In males – many functions, such as regulating immume system, metabolism and reproduction (sperm production and testosterone levels).
2
Q
What are the main characteristics of oxytocin?
A
Produced in hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary gland.
Involved in:
- Labor and childbirth (contractions, milk ejection)
- Maternal behaviour (love or bonding hormone for touch and attachment)
- Stress regulation (attenuates release of cortisol)
- Social behaviour (empathy, social cognition)
3
Q
What are the main characteristics of estradiol?
A
Produced by ovaries, this hormone rises during follicular phase.
Crucial for the development and maintenance of reproductive tissues and influences secondary sex characteristics (breast and body fat).
In men – small amount produced by testes. Testosterone is converted to estradiol through the enzyme aromatase.
4
Q
What are the main characteristics of progesterone?
A
Produced by corpus luteum in ovary after ovulation, preparing uterine lining for implantation. When pregnant, the placenta is the source of progesterone production.
In men and women - small amounts are produced by adrenal glands, having regulatory functions (metabolism, stress and other).
5
Q
What are the main characteristics of cortisol?
A
Part of the glucocorticoids and plays role crucial in body stress response.
It is the “stress hormone”, helping the body cope with stressful situations (long term stress response).
6
Q
What are the main characteristics of testosterone?
A
It is considered an androgen, primarily produced in the testes of men and small amount in the ovaries and adrenal glands.
Primary sex hormone of men, but plays an important role in women’s health too.
Libido, sexual function, bone health, muscle mass, mood, metabolism, …
Can also be related to psychosis, aggression, mood and cancer dev.
Ex: Male vs female gorillas
7
Q
What are the main characteristics of vasopressin?
A
Know as the antidiuretic hormone, it is produced in hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary gland.
Regulates water balance, blood pressure. and social behaviour.
High levels of vasopressin – social bonding and affiliation (pair bonding, parental behaviour, social recognition)
8
Q
Name the hormones associated with parental behaviour.
A
- Prolactin
- Oxytocin
- Testosterone
- Estradiol
- Progesterone
- Cortisol
- Vasopressin
9
Q
What is parental behavior?
A
Behaviours related to one’s offspring that contribute directly to the survival of fertilized eggs or offspring that have left the body of the female.
For infant survival, parental care is critical in many species and is thus critical for the reproductive success of the parents (their offspring reach maturity and produces offspring of their own).
We have maternal and paternal behaviour.
10
Q
What is parental investment?
A
Extent to which parents compromise their ability to produce more offspring, in order to assist to current one.
Females tend to usually make the bigger investment (the choosier sex invest the most parental care).
11
Q
What is the difference between precocial born offspring and altricial born offpspring?
A
Precocial: Born at advanced stage of development, requiring little or no parental intervention for survival.
Altricial: Born at early stage of development and quite helpless, requiring substantial parental care to survive.
12
Q
Are humans precocial or altricial?
A
Humans are semiprecocials.
We are born at an intermediate state between the two. This type of offspring are born with some degree of development and independence but still require parental investment.
Ex: Human babies can thermoregulate (preterm babies cannot though).
13
Q
What are the main maternal behaviours in dogs (dogs are atricial)?
A
- A couple of days before birth, dog builds a nest which her puppies will be born in.
- As each pup is born, mom licks of amniotic fluid, membranes and the anogenital region.
- Mom knows how to lay to expose her nipples to nurse
- She retrieves pups if they wander too far
- Shows aggression to intruders
14
Q
What are the exceptions for paternal care in the animal kingdom?
A
Certain fish and bird species.
15
Q
What is lactational amenorrhea?
A
The interruption of menstruation (postnatal infertility) that occurs when a woman is breastfeeding.
(Inadequate LH secretion inhibits the follicular phase, resulting in no ovulation)
Prolactin inhibits – GnrH inhibits – LH
16
Q
How can you induce lactation without pregnancy?
A
Usually it involves hormonal therapy, breast stimulation and regular breast pumping or nursing to mimic the conditions that promote milk production.
17
Q
What factors are associated with sex differences in parental behavior?
A
- Efforts in mating or parental behaviour (tradeoff between the two)
- Birth developmental stage of the offspring (some require the care of two adults)
- How males are able to meet offspring’s demands (avian species can both regurgitate but mammals only female can meet nutritional needs)
18
Q
TRUE or FALSE.
All birds tend to have similar parental behaviour, as they have similar functioning of their endocrine system.
A
FALSE.
Some are biparental, chickens are female only and some could even be called adoptive (alloparental care), because they care for offspring that is not their own.
19
Q
What hormone tends to induce maternal behaviour in female birds?
A
Prolactin.
Specifically, hens will display broody behaviour when in contact with the young of even another species when initiated by hormones.
20
Q
TRUE or FALSE.
Sex hormones in birds peak during the time of egg laying (oviposition) and decrease to baseline prior to incubation.
A
TRUE.
If fertilized, prolactin concentrations begin to increase at time of egg laying and remain high during incubation
21
Q
TRUE or FALSE.
Prolactin is lower in penguins and Florida scrub jays because they exhibit alloparental care.
A
FALSE.
Levels are increased in breeding individuals and helpers. It also correlates with the amount of care provided to the offspring.
It is also associated with elevated food consumptions by the breeding pair to support foraging.
22
Q
What can be said about prolactin levels of avian species that hatch altricial species?
A
Their prolactin concentrations remain high throughout incubation and chick rearing, whereas precocial species only have high prolactin during incubation and it declines at time of hatching.
23
Q
In mammals, prolactin used to be considered the critical hormone for maternal behaviour. What can be said now?
A
Estrogen concentrations around time of birth is critical for the onset of maternal behaviour. Estrogen rises with prolactin after birth.
24
Q
What can be said about hormones in human pregnancy?
A
Pregnancy is accompanied by high concentration of estradiol and progesterone, followed by a drop in concentration of steroids after birth.
Oxytocin, cortisol (boosts immune system) and endorphins are also involved.
Drop in progesterone and estrogen after birth may contribute to postpartum depression.
25
How does sensitization work for rats who have never given birth?
In order to induce maternal behaviours in rats that have never given birth (nulliparous females), a blood transfusion from a new mother for 4 to 6 days is required for maternal behaviour to occur (sensitization).
So, not as directly inducible as birds.
26
What contributes to the maternal behaviour of aggression in dogs?
Hormones (progesterone) are needed but the presence of pups (in dogs) is also needed for the onset and expression of aggression.
So progesterone - aggression in females
Testosterone - aggression in males
27
What are some findings of questionnaires for parental behaviour in humans?
- New mothers rated infant-associated odours as more pleasant (body, urine, feces)
- Mother and fathers were more likely to identify shirts worn by their own infant
- Mothers and fathers could identify amniotic fluid associated with their own infant.
28
TRUE or FALSE.
Receptors for oxytocin and vasopressin are found within the olfactory system, which may help establish a mother's attraction to her newborn infant's odours.
(olfactory system - limbic hypothalamus system - ventral forebrain and brainstem)
TRUE.
Lesions along this pathway interfere with chemosensory processing and impedes maternal behaviour.
29
What hormone is associated with approach behaviours between infants in women?
Cortisol (higher cortisol, higher approach behaviours)
Cortisol may not induce directly, but may indirectly increase mother's arousal. This association is only seen in first time mothers.
30
What hormone is associated with affectionate contact in parents?
Oxytocin (higher levels)
Specifically, women with the greatest increase in oxytocin as their pregnancy progresses show highest levels of maternal bonding.
31
In terms of behaviour in mice, what did fathers, expectant 1st time fathers and unmated single mice do when exposed to new-borns?
Unmated males - low parental behaviour
Expectant fathers - average levels of parenting
Fathers - high parental beh.
These behaviours are directly related to prolactin levels.
32
TRUE or FALSE.
Testosterone is always associated with low parental care in males and infanticide.
FALSE.
It is necessary for paternal behaviour in California mice. Castration reduced their paternal behaviour and replacement maintained high levels of paternal beh.
33
What hormones are involved in human paternal behaviour?
Similar to other mammals, testosterone, prolactin and cortisol.
Estradiol - higher in fathers
Test. - lower in fathers
Cortisol - lower in fathers
Fathers are more sympathetic to the crying of infants. Especially with higher prolactin and low testosterone.
34
How is the dopamine pathways involved in parental behaviour?
Interacting with babies is reinforcing. Feedback mechanism VTA and Nac associated with reward.
35
What do we know about the pregnant women's brain?
- Down regulates stress response serving an adaptive purpose
- Higher ability to fend off threats and identify them
- There may be permanent changes in the brain of women after giving birth, that increases after each birth
36
What behaviour seems to have evolved from parental behaviour?
Affiliation, which involves motivation to approach and remain in close proximity with a conspecific.
37
In order to socially bond, social familiarity is required. What hormone is required for the development of social memory?
Oxytocin, those laking it do not develop social memory.
Oxytocin antagonists also directly block the formation of partner preferences.
For some, vasopressin plays a more important role for partner preference.
38
Exogenous administration of oxytocin and vasopressin facilitates pair bond formation in both sexes but what can be said about endogenous administration?
Prairie Voles
Endogenous oxytocin more important for pair bond formation in females and vasopressin for males.
39
TRUE or FALSE.
Individuals in couples display higher levels of oxytocin.
TRUE.
40
TRUE or FALSE.
Men with higher testosterone were less likely to be in long term relationships.
TRUE.
More likely to divorce, more likely in single men, more likely in polyamorous males
41
TRUE or FALSE.
Sex steroid hormones vary and affect tolerance of other same sex peers.
TRUE.
Less tolerance in the summer for close proximity and higher tolerance in the winter, as lower circulating sex steroids and lower concentrations.
42
What type of processes are methylation and histone modification?
Epigenetic processes
43
What is methylation?
A process of long-term gene silencing involving attaching methyl groups to cytosines in the promoter region of a gene.
44
How is mRNA synthesized?
A Transcription factor binds to a Promoter (or facilitatory region) allows an enzyme to begin the process. The sequence of RNA is determined by DNA.
45
What is homeostasis?
Ability to maintain optimal conditions in the body (hormones are critical).
Regulation of fluids, sodium, energy, temperature, ...
46
What is a stressor?
It is something that disrupts homeostasis, which can affect the brain or behavior. The brain can perceive psychological factors as stressful and evoke a stress response.
It causes stress to the organism.
Stressors can be internal or external.
47
What are the different sources of stressors?
1. Environmental: Temperature, noise, ...
2. Physiological: Insufficient food, water deprivation, ...
3. Psychological: Maltreatment, lack of control, ...
48
What is the stress response?
A suite of physiological and behavioral responses to reestablish homeostasis.
49
There are two endocrine systems involved in the stress response. Which hormone is associated with the adrenal medulla and which on is associated with the adrenal cortex?
Medulla: Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Short term
Cortex: Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Long term
50
Who is considered the founder of modern stress research and what did he observe?
Selye
He observed that epinephrine and glucocorticoids are released in response to virtually any stressor (HPA axis activates when faced with stressor and extreme cold)
51
Rats injected with ovarian hormone and with saline exhibited the same symptoms - peptic ulcers, adrenal hypertrophy, regression of immune organs - all this due to likely what common factor?
A physical response due to stress exposure (animal manipulation)
52
What are the 3 stages of General Adaptation System (Prolonged Stress Response)?
1. Alarm Reaction Stage
Fight or flight activation leading to increased HR, awareness and energy
mobilization
2. Stage of Resistance
Body tries to cope with stressor and restore homeostasis, hormones and
physiological processes remain elevated
3. Stage of exhaustion
Body's resources have become depleted, body has reduced ability to cope with
stressor. In some cases, this can even lead to death.
Ex: Rats exposed to low temperatures adapted around the 2 week mark but at around 2 months, they passed away (loss of adaptation)
53
What is stress and what are some limitations of the definition?
Stress is anything that throws your body out of homeostatic balance. It is the sum of all nonspecific effects of factors that increase energy consumption above base level. Stress can be adaptive in the short term but in the long term it can become maladaptive.
Limitations:
- Does not address of psychological factors can evoke a full physiological response
(can cause imbalance instead of restoring balance)
- Does not account for individual variation in perception of stressors
- Does not address how the same stimulus can stress one person but be pleasurable
to another
54
What is the human perception of stress?
- A condition in which individuals are aroused by aversive stimuli
- For an event to be deemed stressful, the individual must perceive it as aversive
- Individuals need to lack the perception that they have control over the aversive
stimuli
55
What is Allostasis and Allostatic Overload?
Allostasis are long term adaptations to maintain balance in the system.
Allostatic overload (load) is when long term adaptation become problems.
56
What has a stronger effect, epinephrine or norepinephrine?
Epinephrine, which is around 6x more potent but takes longer to be released.
57
In what order do hormones release in response to stress? (physiological stress response)
When exposed to a stressor...
1. Within seconds - Sympathetic NS secretes norepinephrine and adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine
2. The HPA axis gets engaged (hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone, stimulating adrenocorticotropin hormone from anterior pituitary)
3. Within minutes, the adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids
58
TRUE or FALSE.
Endocannabinoids and methamphetamine pathways are activated in response to injuries to prevent them from curtailing movements.
FALSE.
Endocannabinoids and endorphins are released inhibit responses to injuries.
59
TRUE or FALSE.
The stress response is highly specific.
Ex: A lion that is hunting a zebra would have a different stress response than the
zebra being hunted by the lion.
FALSE.
Both would have the same stress response, this exemplifies the non specificity of the stress response.
60
What are some of the adaptive effects associated with the physiological effects of the stress response?
- Increased immediate energy
- Increased oxygen intake
- Decreased blood flow to organs not necessary for movement
- Inhibition of energetically expensive processes unrelated to survival (digestion, reproduction)
- Decreased pain perception
- Sensory function and memory enhanced (too much decreases though)
61
What type of hormones are a better alternative to epinephrine for mediating behavioral effects of stress and why?
Glucocorticoids because they release in response to numerous stressors, they can cross the blood-brain barrier and because they have receptors in several brain regions.
*CRH (polypeptide) also acts on the CNS
62
In what ways does corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) mediate some aspects of the stress response?
In the hypothalamus it is involved in the regulation of the HPA axis
In the amygdala, it is involved in mediating anxiety responses
(Adaptive and pathological)
63
TRUE or FALSE.
The implication of hormones acting on behavior means that there has to be evidence of hormonal signaling in the PNS.
FALSE.
There has to be evidence of hormonal signaling in the CNS.
64
TRUE or FALSE.
Higher levels of CRH in the amygdala (for mice and rats) is associated with less anxiety and higher sexual receptivity in females.
FALSE.
It is associated with higher anxiety in novel environments and lower sexual receptivity in females, which is not reversed by adenalectomy.
65
If CrHr 1 knockout in mice makes them less anxious and seems to mediate responses to stress, what does this support?
That the hippocampus and amygdala (where receptors are located and inactivated) provide negative feedback during stress response.
66
The activation of what hormone receptor in the CNS seems to suppress food intake?
Crh2
67
What are the types of corticosteroid receptors in the hippocampus?
Type 1: Mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) (Aldosterone can cause inflammation due to stress)
These have a higher affinity for glucocorticoids and are involved in baseline conditions
Type 2: Glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) (Cortisol)
These provide negative feedback during stress response to bring back stress under control
68
Which neuromodulator in CNS is more inhibitory, GABA or endocannabinoids and how are they involved in the short term stress response?
Endocannabinoids
The G protein cascade activating endocannabinoids allows the short term stress response to be more effective (disinhibits norepinephrine) as they are less inhibitory and inhibit GABA secretion.
69
Aside from ACTH, what other pituitary hormones play an important role in the stress response?
- Vasopressin
Increased blood concentration and memory
- Urocortin
Amplify stress signals
- Prolactin
Suppresses reproduction
- Endorphins and enkephalins
Pain relief and inhibits reproduction
70
What is the adaptive-stress response?
The stress response is initiated by a stressful stimuli and then the system is deactivated (homeostasis is restored).
When balance is not restored, it leads to a pathological condition that can jeopardize health.
71
What 4 health conditions are associated with increased exposure to childhood adversity
- Asthma
- Depression
- Diabetes
- Cardiovascular Conditions
72
What are some pathological effects of the stress response?
Myopathy: muscle loss (can even be irreversible in heart) from ongoing breakdown of lipids and glycogen. Wear and tear of stress.
Reproductive Function: Infertility
Inhibited Digestion: Ulceration and chronic IBS, bacteria attacking stomach
Growth and repair processes: slow hair growth, flimsy nails, slow healing
Immune System: poor immune function due to glucocorticoid resistance
Brain and behaviour: neuronal maladaptive response
73
What is ataraxia?
Extreme calmness
74
What is the typical function of the HPA axis and what happens when there is prolonged glucocorticoids?
Hippocampus -> Hypothalamus ->
Ant. Pit -> Adrenal Glands -> Hippocampus
High glucocorticoids impair in hippocampus negative feedback leading to hypercortisolism
75
TRUE or FALSE.
The feedback system implicated in cortisol response can vary according to social position of individuals.
TRUE.
Dominant animals display more efficient HPA axis feedback system, returning to baseline faster.
76
What is adversity?
Exposure to harmful or threatening stimuli or absence of stimulation needed for typical development.
(Deprivation x threat)
77
What are the two types of effects that can be observed for children growing up in adversity?
1. Direct effects (maltreatment, domestic violence)
2. Contextual effects (poverty, living in violent area)
78
What did the Bucharest Project find?
3 intervention groups:
- Orphans in romanian orphanage (deprived care)
- Typical Romanian
- High quality foster intervention
Those in institutional care displayed blunted HPA axis reactivity and sympathetic response.
79
What is motivation?
Pursuit of a goal, it can be by executive control or to fulfil an internal need for survival (time and quantity specific).
80
Why do we eat?
- Meet needs of the structural part of the body
- Obtain energy and fuel
81
What part of the body demands the highest consumption of glucose?
The brain
It depends on glucose as its main source of energy and consumes 20% of glucose-derived energy, making it the main consumer of glucose.
82
What two systems regulate food intake?
Both systems motivate us to consume food:
1. Homeostatic system (restore energy)
2. Hedonic system (pleasure)
Our food intake can also be influence by environmental factors.
83
What are the two types of energy balance?
Short term: determinant of satiety (insulin)
Long term: maintain body mass over long term (leptin)
84
TRUE or FALSE.
Homeostatic processes are what regulate food intake.
FALSE.
Food intake is divorced from homeostatic processes and relies on non-homeostatic processes such as experiences, habits and availability.
Ex: Smell, sight, time of day and env. factors
85
What state are we in following meal consumption?
Prandial State: Blood is filled with nutrients and energy is stored (glycogen and triglycerides)
When fasting , glycogen and triglycerides are broken to be used as fuel.
86
What happens when our energy intake consistently exceeds the usage or fails to meed to body's demands?
Excessive intake: Higher body fat
Low intake: Starvation
87
What is an orexigenic?
A hormone or compound that stimulates appetite and may even induce hyperphagia.
88
What is an anorexigenic?
Hormone or compound that reduces appetite, resulting in lower food consumption.
89
What are the two phases of energy utilization and storage?
1. Postprandial phase: Well fed state after meal ingestion embodying digestion and nutrient absorption (6-12 h)
Immediately after ingestion of food
2. Postabsorptive phase: When nutrients are digested, absorbed utilized and stored in designated tissues.
Insulin secretoin rises while glucagon secretion falls
90
What are the two phases of insulin release?
The cephalic phase
Insulin is released from pancreatic cells even before any nutrients are consumed (smell)
The Gastrointestinal phase
Storage of excess nutrients from meal occurs when insulin is released in response to nutrient absorption from gut.
91
What metabolic processes occur when we are in a fasting state?
- Glycogenesis
Stored glycogen is broken down for steady supply of glucose for energy
- Lipolysis
Adipose tissue breakdown into free fatty acids
- Gluconeogenesis
Production of glucose from amino acids
92
TRUE or FALSE.
Obesity is solely the result of overeating.
FALSE.
32 candidate obesity genes have been observed and many act on the brain. This implies genetic factors for obesity.
93
What is leptin?
It is a hormone produced by adipose cells. The amount that circulates are proportional to amount of fat in body.
It is encoded by the ob gene, removing this gene leads to obesity (treating with leptin lowers body weight). However, people can develop leptin resistance which is why we cannot make medication with leptin.
Low leptin signals the need to increase food intake.
94
What happens when we are high in energy, insulin and leptin?
This signals we do not need more food, as our energy reserves are replenished.
95
What is ghrelin?
A hormone that is associated with increased food intake and increased body mass. It seems to work in opposition to leptin, circulation in blood of the two are inversely correlated.
Blood ghrelin peaks at time of meal onset
96
TRUE or FALSE.
The hypothalamus has no effect on eating behaviour and motivation to eat.
FALSE.
Lesions of lateral hypothalamus lead to anorexia (bilateral interferes with all motivated beh.) and lesions of the ventromedial hypothalamus lead to obesity.
97
What are the two opposing sets of neuronal circuitry in the arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus?
1) Feeding stimulatory circuit (ghrelin)
2) Feeding inhibitory circuit (leptin)
Both sends signals to PVN and to hypothalamus to modulate feeding beh. Both are modulated by hormonal signals that cross the blood brain barrier.
98
When we are in an underfed state, we have low levels of leptin and insulin. What neuropeptides stimulate food intake?
NPY in PVN and AgRP blocks melanocortin type 4 receptor in response to low leptin
99
When we are in a fed state, what neuropeptides decrease food intake?
CART in PVN and POMC on melanocortin type 4 receptor
100
TRUE or FALSE.
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is an activator of food intake.
TRUE.
It is an orexigenic peptide, when it interacts in PVM causes hyperphagia and in LHA can help regulate body mass.
101
TRUE or FALSE.
Agouti-related protein is a food intake inhibitor.
FALSE.
Even tiny amounts can stimulate food intake for up to six days in mice and low levels of leptin/insulin stimulate NPY/AgRP in arcuate nuclei.
102
Injections of MCH (melanin-concentrating hormone) in what brain region evokes feeding beh.?
Lateral ventricles and other regions
103
Leptin and insulin increase the gene of ____ in the arcuate nuclei, which is stimulates MC4 receptors and reduces eating behaviour.
POMC (proopiomelanocortin)
It increases conversion of white adipose tissues to brown, increasing energy expenditure.
104
Which peptide is associated with reward and eating behaviour, has an effect on metabolism and decreases food intake?
Cocaine-and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART)
105
What are the similarities and differences of the anabolic vs catabolic pathway?
Leptin and insulin stimulate catabolic pathway (POMC/CART) and repress anabolic pathway (NPY/AgRP) both beginning in ARC and projecting to PVN and LHA.
106
What gastrointestinal peptide hormone is released during feeding to aid digestion and stop feeding behaviour (vagus nerve)?
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
107
TRUE or FALSE.
Gonadal steroid hormones have an influent on feeding behaviour and body mass.
TRUE.
Estrogens have catabolic effects and androgens have anabolic effects.
108
What is the most prominent system that controls appetite, motivational and emotional drives for food?
The dopamine reward system (it regulates motivated behaviour)
109
What role does serotonin play in motivation?
Serotonergic signalling may reduce reward-related, motivational food intake.
Ex: Anhedonia in depression leads to low motivation, leading to lower food consumption.
110
How does stress seem to affect eating behaviour?
Acute physical or emotional distress induces increased intake of comfort foods in both humans and animals, even when not hungry.
Even if a person does not eat more in quantity, the quality (savory, sweets) of their food seems to change in response to stress.
111
TRUE or FALSE.
Our mindset can influence our ghrelin response.
TRUE.
In the milkshake experiment, people rated their satiety as higher for the "indulgent" one over the "healthy" one, despite them having the nutritional properties.
This suggests that the effect of food consumption on ghrelin may be psychologically mediated.
112
What are sexual behaviours?
Actions with primary aim of ensuring male sperm is delivered to female ova.
113
What is sex drive or libido?
Motivational force that drives individuals to seek out members of opposite sex and copulate with them.
114
What are the physiological costs of sexual reproduction?
Female eggs are expensive to produce and in limited supply. Make sperm is "cheap".
115
What are appetitive behaviours?
Behaviour that brings individual into contact with particular goal at hand.
Can be applied to most behaviours.
116
What are consummatory behaviours?
Behaviours performed when individuals are in contact with primary goal.
More highly stereotyped and species-specific, likely innate.
116
117
Name the components of male and female sexual behaviors.
Male
- Mount latency
- Intermission latency
- Ejaculation Latency
- Postejaculatory refractory period
Female
- Attractivity
- Proceptivity
- Receptivity
118
TRUE or FALSE.
Pheromones are so potent that smearing an immobilized male hamster with female vaginal secretions will lead to other males to attempt to mount the males.
TRUE.
This is not seen in males free from immobilization that were no smeared.
119
TRUE or FALSE.
Exposure to pheromones before meeting a receptive female and high levels of testosterone both have the power to increase male sex drive.
TRUE.
Estrogen in males can ALSO increase male sex drive.
120
What region in the brain seems to be especially important for the control of sexual performance in male rats?
The preoptic area (POA)
Lesions in this area either reduce or eliminate male sexual beh (cut off from dopamine).
121
TRUE or FALSE.
Drugs that stimulate postsynaptic dopamine receptor sites or increase dopamine synthesis reduce copulatory behaviour in males.
FALSE.
Regardless of testosterone concentration, an increase of 50% extracellular dopamine facilitates copulatory behaviour (mPOA).
122
Which hormone in females is associated with approach sexual behaviours and which one is more associated with rejection/ aggression?
Approach: Estrogen
Avoid: Progesterone
123
What is sexual drive in men?
Psychological state in which individual displays interest in sexual stimuli and is motivated to seek out sexual activities (person does not have to be aroused).
124
What is sexual arousal in men?
Two part process:
1. Physiological - genital arousal
2. Subjective awareness that one is genitally or physiologically aroused
125
How do we measure sexual arousal in men?
- Heart Rate
- Blood Pressure
- Latency to achieve orgasm
- Penile erection via plethysmograph (used to see if someone was homosexual historically)
126
What are the effects of testosterone treatment on hypogonadal men?
What happens in normal men when injected with testosterone?
Increase sexual behaviour which also seems to increase in a dose-dependent manner.
For healthy men, the only difference was in search of auditory or visual sexual stimuli.
So once in the low normal range of testosterone, this does not increase effect on sexual behaviours.
127
Describe the human menstrual cycle.
1. Menstrual Phase (1-5 day)
2. Proliferative (follicular) Phase (6-14)
3. Ovulation (Around day 14) *Where sexual beh.
4. Secretory Phase (Day 15-28)
128
In what phase of the menstrual cycle are women attracted to more masculine faces?
Follicular phase
129
Describe the sexual behaviours of women in the follicular phase (correlational)?
- Prefer masculine / symmetrical male faces
- Higher level of objective and subjective sexual arousal
- Higher probability of short-term encounters (masculinized) and flirting with men who are not their partner
130
Describe sexual behaviour in women during lutheal phase (correlational)?
- Prefer healthy faces
- Preference in healthy partners stronger in pregnant women and women using oral contraceptives
- Progesterone levels positively related to preference for feminine faces and higher relationship commitment.
131
TRUE or FALSE.
Depending on the t-shirts that women wore in their follicular and luteal phase, men judged odours of the follicular phase as more sexy. Especially those who were ovulating.
TRUE.
Also, those higher in estrogen were viewed as more feminine, healthy and attractive.
132
What are the differences in the hormone cycle and sexual behaviour with and without the contraceptive pill?
There are more fluctuations without, with estrogen and progesterone peaking at different moments.
With the pill, progesterone dominates the cycle, as there is no ovulation. Sexual desire is lower in variation, as hormones are more stable.
Testosterone relates to sexual thought and desires and anticipation.
No difference in preference for masculine faces in long term relationships for pill users and pill users less attractive to men.
133
What 3 strands of evidence fuel concerns over endocrine disruptors?
1. Higher incidence of many endocrine-related disorders
2. Endocrine-related effects in wildlife populations
3. Identification of chemicals with endocrine disrupting properties which is linked to disease outcomes in lab studies
134
How many chemicals are known or suspected to be capable of interfering with hormones in some way?
EDCS - Endocrine disrupting chemicals
800
135
What are persistent organochlorine pollutants (POPs)?
Substances that persist a long time in the environment and pose a threat to human health.
Ex: Heavy metals, plasticizers (BPA), pesticides
136
What disruptor is found in plasticizers? Describe it.
Bisphenol A (BPA)
- Deleterious mechanisms of action on estrogens and androgen receptors
- Hormones for sexual dev.
- Linked to infertility, breast and prostate cancer
137
TRUE or FALSE.
Microplastics can be found in human blood.
TRUE.
138
TRUE or FALSE.
Some EDCs accumulate in fat tissue, which can lead to obesity.
TRUE.
It also has risks for type 2 diabetes.
139
