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KINE 3012 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What % of O2 is dissolved and what % is bound to hemoglobin?

A

1-2% dissolves in blood
98% is bound to hemoglobin

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2
Q

What is the importance of hemoglobin?

A

It is a protein that helps deliver/ increases the amount of O2 transport to the tissues.

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3
Q

What is hemoglobin bound to oxygen called?

A

Oxyhemoglobin; reversible process

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4
Q

What does hemoglobin do at the pulmonary capilliaries?

A

It helps facilitate a partial pressure gradient.

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5
Q

What determines O2 carrying capacity?

A

The total amount of hemoglobin and alveolar/arterial pressure PO2.

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6
Q

What % of hemoglobin is saturated?

A

The % directly relates to the % of O2 bound to hb: 98% binding means 98% saturated.

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7
Q

How does O2 bind/ remove it’s self from hb?

A

The PO2 of O2 in the blood influences the binding/unbinding of O2 to hb.

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8
Q

What is the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

The relationship between arterial PO2 and % of hb that is saturated.

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9
Q

What other factors increase dissociation?

A

Carbon Dioxide

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10
Q

What does a rightward curve indicate?

A

It promotes O2 offloading at the tissue, called the Bohr effect.

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11
Q

What does hb have a higher affinity for?

A

CO2 which means it’s more likely to bind CO2. Leading to a leftward shift.

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12
Q

How does CO2 get out of the system?

A

10% of it dissolves in plasma
30% binds hemoglobin
60% of CO2 is converted to bicarbonate

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13
Q

What is a chloride shift?

A

Erythrocytes passively facilitates bicarbonate ions out and chloride ions out.

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14
Q

What determines PA gas?

A

Ambient Pgas
Cell usage (O2) and production (CO2)
Ventilation Rate (VE)

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15
Q

Respiratory centre in the brain is located where?

A

In the brainstem; it establishes a breathing rhythm

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16
Q

What are mechanoreceptors?

A

Detect changes in pressure, flow or displacement of a structure (Lung, chest wall, & peripheral muscles)

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17
Q

What are metaboreceptors?

A

Detect changes in metabolic concentrations like Lactic acid and Hydrogen Ions and temperature.

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18
Q

What is the Hering-Breyer reflex?

A

It is a stretch receptor in the lung tissue that prevents overinflation and regulates resting tidal volume.

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19
Q

What are chemoreceptors? And what are the groups?

A

Determines the magnitude of ventilations; peripheral and central medullary.

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20
Q

What is the function of peripheral and central medullary chemoreceptors?

A

Peripheral chemoreceptors are composed of carotid and aortic: they both sense CO2/O2 pressure
Central Medullary chemoreceptors: senses changes in the brains ECF and responds to changes in H+

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21
Q

What does the circulatory system do?

A

Transports blood, CO2, O2, substrates, hormones, immunological agents and regulates temperature.

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22
Q

What is the job of the valves in the heart?

A

To help generate the flow of blood in a certain direction, which allows proper O2 delivery and CO2 removal.

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23
Q

What is the purpose of one-way valves?

A

The valves prevent the back flow of blood and passively open by pressure gradients.

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24
Q

Why does the left AV valve have two cusps?

A

The left bicuspid valve has 2 cusps because it is anatomically stronger which prevents back flow in high pressure areas.

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25
Q

What are intercalated discs?

A

The space/discs between two cardiac muscle cells.

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26
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

They allow the signal/transfer of sodium, potassium and calcium between myocytes causing action potential.

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27
Q

What innervates cardiac muscles?

A

Parasympathetic/Sympathetic nerves

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28
Q

What is the function of the SA/AV nodes?

A

They are responsible for generating the depolarizing wave to contract the atria and ventricles.

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29
Q

Why is the conduction of the AV node slower than the SA node?

A

This helps move the blood to the ventricles, the delay helps for a more full contraction.

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30
Q

What are the electrical connection of the atria and ventricles?

A

The AV node and bundles of His

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31
Q

What is the process of the depolarization event?

A

It sends the wave through the cardiac muscle tissue through gap junctions from the atria then when reaching the AV node it sends it to the purkinje fibers distributing the electrical wave to the muscles in the ventricle.

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32
Q

What is a pacemaker potential?

A

It occurs in the SA node and it is a self-induced action potential.

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33
Q

What determines the action potential?

A

The pacemaker potential slope determines the rate of action potential generation.

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34
Q

How does the depolarization fire up the action potential and send signals to the SA node?

A
  1. Progressive decrease in K+ permeability (closes channels)
  2. Increase of Na+ permeability (F-type channels open)
  3. Increase if Ca2+ permeability (T-type channels open)
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35
Q

What are F-type channels?

A

They allow a slow influx or leak/infrequent amount of Na+ into the cell (Funny Type)

36
Q

What are T-type channels?

A

The T-type channels are not open for very long but allows for Ca2+ to come at a slow rate.

37
Q

What happens when the threshold is met?

A

Once threshold is reached the t-type Ca2+ channels close then the L-type Ca2+ channels open for a big influx leading to an action potential.

38
Q

What does the parasympathetic/sympathetic nervous system do?

A

Parasympathetic: decreases the action potential rate/lowers heart rate
Sympathetic: increase action potential rate/increases heart rate

39
Q

What is the difference between pacemaker potential and cardiac action potential?

A

Pacemaker potential occurs between the SA and AV node while cardiac action potential is measuring the potential between the atria and ventricles.

40
Q

What is the resting potential of Atrial Ventricular Cardiac Action Potentials? And what controls membrane potential?

A

-90mV and is controlled by K+ (leaky K+ channels)

41
Q

Where does Na+ come from in Cardiac Action Potential?

A

A gap junction which causes the influx of Na+ from ECF to inside the cell.

42
Q

What initiates the depolarization event in Cardiac Action Potential?

A

Na+ initiates the depolarizing event.

43
Q

What is the plateau phase in Cardiac Action Potential?

A

The reduction of Na+ permeability and the influx of Ca2+ permeability through voltage gated L-type channels.

44
Q

How is the plateau phase maintained?

A

The influx of Ca2+ in balances the efflux of K+.

45
Q

What is responsible for membrane repolarization in Cardiac Action Potential?

A

The L-type Ca2+ channels closing and the efflux of K+ permeability.

46
Q

What are the three steps of excitation contraction coupling?

A
  1. membrane depolarization -> AP down tubules.
  2. Entry of Ca2+ into the cell through L-type channels.
  3. Ca2+ binds to ryandine receptors.
47
Q

What is a refractory period?

A

There cannot be another AP within this period of time.

48
Q

What are the extended steps of the excitation contraction coupling?

A
  1. AP down tubules
  2. Small # of Ca2+ from ECF causes a release of a large # of Ca2+ from SR
  3. increase in cytosolic Ca2+
  4. Unwinding of troponin/tropomyosin
  5. Binding of actin/myosin
  6. Contraction
49
Q

How do we measure electrical activity and what is it?

A

ECG: the sum of all cardiac action potentials.

50
Q

What are the P-wave, QRS complex and T-wave?

A

P-wave: atrial depolarization
QRS complex: ventricular depolarization
T-wave: ventricular repolarization

51
Q

Why is the amplitude for the p-wave smaller compared to QRS?

A

This is b/c there are few cardiac muscle cells in the atria compared to the ventricles.

52
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

The events of each heart beat and is geared to move blood to the lungs and body.

53
Q

Why do we need pressure differences?

A

For blood flow to occur, generating pressure difference is muscle contraction.

54
Q

What is systole and diastole?

A

Systole: Ventricular contraction and ejection.
Diastole: Ventricular relaxation and filling.

55
Q

What is ventricular ejection?

A

Contraction of the heart and ejecting blood out of the ventricles.

56
Q

What is isovolumetric ventricular contraction?

A

Where there is no volume change but contraction still occurs due to pressure changes

57
Q

What is isovolumetric ventricular relaxation?

A

Where there is no volume change and all the valves are closed.

58
Q

What is ventricular filling?

A

Where blood is passively flowing into the ventricles, the atria contracting so it has to have more pressure in order for the ventricles to fully fill

59
Q

What is the main idea of the cardiac cycle?

A

Blood flows by bulk flow: F = ΔP/R

60
Q

What is the formula for cardiac output?

A

Q = HR x SV

61
Q

What are the positive/negative regulators of HR?

A

Positive: Sympathetic Nervous System
Negative: Parasympathetic Nervous System

62
Q

What is intrinsic vs extrinsic?

A

Intrinsic: things inside the heart
Extrinsic: things external to the heart

63
Q

What is the feedback loop in cardiac output?

A

Increase SNS activity causes increase in venous return which increases end-diastolic volume.

64
Q

What regulates HR in SA/AV nodes?

A

Action potentials; autorhythmic cells and non-contractile

65
Q

What regulates HR in cardiac muscle?

A

Non-autorhythmic cells and contractile

66
Q

How can we regulate HR via pacemaker activity?

A

PNS: increase acetylcholine; decrease Na+ and Ca2+ influx as well as increased K+ influx.
SNS: increase norepinephrine/epinephrine; increases Na+ and Ca2+ influx

67
Q

What is the Frank-Starling Mechanism?

A

Length-tension relationship of cardiac muscle.

68
Q

How can SNS control regulate SV?

A

Increased SR Ca2+ in cardiac muscle controlled by L-type channels.

69
Q

What are the functions of the vascular system?

A

Delivery of nutrients/O2, Waste removal/CO2, distribution of hormones, transport of immune cells and temperature control.

70
Q

What is selective distribution?

A

Not all tissues. receive equal blood volumes.

71
Q

What is Macro vs. mirco-circulation?

A

Macro: takes blood to/from organs
Micro: Distributes blood within each organ

72
Q

How does blood move through the vascular system?

A

Circulation = Mean Atrial Pressure/Total Peripheral Resistance

73
Q

What determines blood flow?

A

△P = P1 - P2

74
Q

What determines mean arterial pressure?

A

MAP = CO x TPR

75
Q

Why is mean arterial pressure important?

A

1 homeostatically regulated variable in the body, provides ‘driving force’ to move blood through the circulation and contributes to the heart’s ‘workload’.

76
Q

What are consequences of low blood pressure?

A

It impairs the delivery of blood flow.

77
Q

What are symptoms, causes and risk factors of low blood pressure?

A

Symptoms: dizziness, fainting, fading vision, fatigue, nausea and trouble concentrating
Causes: dehydration, pregnancy, heart failure, endocrine disorders, blood loss and anemia
Risk factors: age, certain medication and disease.

78
Q

What are the different stages of high blood pressure?

A

Stage 1: SBP/CSP = 130-139/80-89
Stage 2: >140/>90

79
Q

What are symptoms, causes and risk factors of high blood pressure?

A

Symptoms: blindness, chest pain, pregnancy complications, heart attack/failure, stroke.
Causes: Atherosclerosis, congenital heart defects, kidney disease, obstructive sleep apnea and thyroid problems.
Risk Factors: age, ethnicity, genetics, obesity, physical inactivity.

80
Q

What are conduit vessels?

A

They take blood from the heart and distributes it to the various organs and tissues efficiently.

81
Q

How can we make conduit arteries maintain flow?

A

Minimize resistance to flow: large diameter, low contractility, high distensibility and high collagen contents lead to strong artery walls.

82
Q

What is the importance of elasticity?

A

It distends passively during systole and recoils passively during diastole.

83
Q

What are major benefits of compliance?

A
  1. Lowers systolic blood pressure by distending
  2. Converts intermitted flow continuous flow
84
Q

What is the Wind-kessel effect?

A

It helps to dampen the fluctuations in blood pressure over a cardiac cycle and maintain continuous blood flow when ventricular ejection occurs.

85
Q

What allows for aortic compliance?

A

Elastin which is a matrix protein. Compliances = △ Volume△ Pressure

86
Q

What is pulse pressure? and What is responsible for generating the pulse pressure?

A

(SP - DP) and contractions of the ventricles, stroke, volume, speed of blood into the aorta and aortic compliance.

87
Q

Why does systolic BP increase as weight lifted is increased?

A

Exercise pressor reflex: when pressure activates SNS and lactic acid signals metaboreceptors to help simulate this SNS activity for increased SV and Ca2+.

KINE 3012 (5 decks)

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