Midterm 2 Flashcards

Question

what are the three phases of equilibrium?

Answer 1

1) children are satisfied with their understanding of a particular phenomena (equilibrium) 2) when new information leads kids to perceive that their understanding is inadequate - they recognize the shortcomings in their understanding of the phenomenon but cannot generate a superior alternative(disequilibrium) 3) they develop more sophisticate understanding that eliminates the shortcomings of the old one = more advanced equilibrium

Answer 2

1) Qualitative change 2) Broad applicability 3) Brief transitions 4) Invariant sequence

Answer 3

Children of different ages (and at different stages) think in different ways a 5 year old judges morality in terms of consequences an 8 year old judges it based on intent

Answer 4

the type of thinking at each stage influences children's thinking across diverse topics and contexts

Answer 5

before entering a new stage, children pass through a brief transitional period in which they fluctuate between the type of thinking characteristic of the new more advanced stage and of the old less advanced stage Transitions to higher stages of thinking are not necessarily continuous.

Answer 6

everyone progresses through the stages in the same order without skipping any of them The sequences of stages are stable for all people through all time. Stages are not skipped.

Answer 7

1) sensorimotor stage 2) preoperational stage 3) concrete operational stage 4) formal operational stage

Answer 8

the first stage of Piaget's developmental theory birth - 2 years - an infant's knowledge is tied to their sensory and motor abilities which they use to explore/perceive the world - these abilities allow them to learn about objects and people and construct concepts like time, space, causality - live in the here and now: their knowledge is bound to their immediate perceptions/actions - fail tests of the object concept

Answer 9

second stage of Piaget's developmental theory 2-7 years old - Objects and events are represented by mental symbols - able to represent their experiences in language and mental imagery - allows them to remember experiences for longer periods and form more sophisticated concepts - can't perform certain mental operations: considering multiple dimensions simultaneously (the pouring the water into a taller glass and thinking there's more = fails test of conservation)

Answer 10

third stage of Piaget's developmental theory 7-12 years old - children can reason logically about concrete objects and events: understand pouring water into a taller glass doesn't mean there's more) - cannot think in purely abstract terms of generate systematic scientific experiments to test their beliefs - Fails to engage in systematic hypothesis testing

Answer 11

final step in Piaget's developmental theory 12 years and beyond - children can reason abstractly and hypothetically - can perform systematic scientific experiments and draw appropriate conclusions from them - even when the conclusion differs from their prior belief

Answer 12

triples in weight children's thinking grows especially rapidly in the first few years

Answer 13

reflexes - visually track objects in front of them - suck on objects placed in their mouths - turn towards a noise

Answer 14

Children respond to the demands of the environment in ways that meet their own goals babies suck on everything the same way when they're born no matter what it is - after a couple weeks they suck on a nipple different than a finger or pacifier children accommodate their actions to the parts of the environment with which they interact

Answer 15

Children integrate particular observations into a body of coherent knowledge organize seperate reflexes into larger behaviors which are mostly centered on their own bodies - ex. instead of being limited to grasping and sucking separately, they can integrate them and grasp and object then bring it to their mouth to suck on it their reflexes serve as building blocks for more complex behaviors

Answer 16

infants become increasingly interested in the world around them and objects/events beyond their own bodies a signal of this shift is repetition of action son the environment that produce pleasurable or interesting results (shaking a rattle)

Answer 17

Reflexive Activity birth to 1 month - Building knowledge through reflexes (grasping, sucking) - No attempt to locate objects that have disappeared

Answer 18

Primary Circular reactions 1-4 months - Reflexes are organized into larger, integrated behaviors (grasping a rattle and bringing it to the mouth to suck) - Still no attempt to locate objects that have disappeared.

Answer 19

Secondary Circular Reactions 4-8 months - Repetition of actions on the environment that bring out pleasing or interesting results (banging a rattle). - Search for objects that have dropped from view or are partially hidden

Answer 20

Coordination of Secondary Reactions 8-12 months - Mentally representing objects when objects can no longer be seen, thus achieving“object permanence.” - Search for completely hidden objects but makes “A-not-B error.”

Answer 21

the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view Piaget thought that through the age of 8 months, infants lack object permanence - they are only able to think about the objects that they can perceive at the moment

Answer 22

in this error, once 8 to 12 month olds have reached for and found a hidden object several times in one place (location A), when they see the object hidden at a different place (location B) and are prevented from immediately searching for it, they tend to reach where they initially found the objects (A)

Answer 23

Tertiary Circular 12 to 18 months - Actively and avidly exploring the possible uses to which objects can be used: "child as a scientist" (bang things, pour things out, dump paper into toilet) - Ability to follow visible displacements of an object - consistently search for an object at it's current hidden location (look at B not A)

Answer 24

Symbolic Thought 18-24 months - Able to form enduring mental representations, as demonstrated by“deferred imitation,”the repetition of others’ behaviors minutes, hours, or days after it has occurred - Ability to follow invisible displacements

Answer 25

the repetition of other people's behavior minutes, hours, or even days after it occurred

Answer 26

1) at first infant's actives are centered on their own bodies - later they include the word around them 2) early goals are concrete (shaking a rattle and listen to its sound) but later goals are more abstract (verifying heights from which objects are dropped and seeing how the effects vary) 3) infants become increasingly able to form mental representations, moving from "out of sight,out of mind" to remembering a playmate's actions from yesterday

Answer 27

ages 2-7: the development of symbolic representations, that is, the use of one object to stand for another (2-7 years) limits: - egocentrism - centration

Answer 28

the use of one object to stand for another ex. using a card as an iPhone - as they develop they rely less on self-generated symbols and more on conventional ones (wearing an eyepatch when being a pirate, a stick becomes a horse) - heightened symbolic capabilities also evident in growth of drawing (flowers have leaves)

Answer 29

limitation of looking at the world only from one’s own point of view ex. preschooler's difficulty in taking other people's spatial perspectives experiment: had 4 year olds sit at a table in front of a model of three mountains of different sizes and were asked to identify which of the several photographs depicted what a doll would see if it were sitting on chairs at various locations around the table - solving this required children to recognize that their own perspective wasn't the only possible one and to imagine what the view would be from another location - most can't ex. communication: often talk right past each other, only focused on what they're saying ex. when they say things that require knowledge that they have but their listeners clearly don't (when they tell a teacher "he took it from me") over the course of the preoperational stage egocentric speech becomes less common - sign of progress is verbal quarrels because it indicates that a child is paying attention to the playmate's perspective/comments - they're also better able to envision spatial perspectives

Answer 30

focusing on a single, perceptually striking feature to the exclusion of other relevant but less striking features ex. if more weight is on one side of the scale but closer to the center and on the other side it's less weight but it's on the edge - the kids will say that the side with more weight will go down and completely ignore the distance of the weights from the fulcrum ex. conservation concept

Answer 31

that merely changing the appearance or arrangement of objects doesn't necessarily change other key properties such as quantity of the material center their attention on the single, perceptually salient dimension of heigh or length and ignore other relevant dimensions - their egocentrism leads them to fail to understand that their own perspective can be misleading have a tendency to focus on static states of objects (appearance of objects after transformation) and ignore the transformation that was performed

Answer 32

1) conservation of liquid quantity (taller, narrower glass has more orange juice) 2) conservation of solid quantity (long thin clay has more clay than short thick one) 3) conservation of number (spread out coins are more than compact ones) *all employ a three phase procedure*

Answer 33

ages 7-12: Stage in which logical thinking begins - begin to reason logically about concrete features of the world Exemplified by the conservation concept. Children understand the conservation concept when they understand that changing the appearance or arrangement of objects does not change their key properties - they're able to consider multiple dimensions (also passed the balance scale problem) this advanced reasoning is limited to concrete situations - thinking systematically and reasoning about hypothetical situations is still hard ex. pendulum problem

Answer 34

tests concrete operational stage a kid gets multiple strings and weights and is told to perform experiments that indicate which factor(s) influence the amount of time it takes the pendulum to swing through a complete arc most kids begin by thinking the heaviness of weights is the most/only important factor --> most concrete operation reasoners design biased experiments from which no valid conclusion can be drawn (put a heavy weight on a short string and drop it from a lower position then a light weight on a long string dropped from a lower position) --> when the heavier string goes faster they conclude that just as they thought the heavier one goes faster this premature conclusion reflects their limited ability to think systematically or to imagine all possible combinations of variables (don't consider that the faster motion might be related to string length or height rather than weight)

Answer 35

ages 12 and beyond: the ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically and engage in scientific thinking ex. when presented with the pendulum problem, they see that any of the variables might influence the time it takes for the pendulum to swing through an arc so you have to test the effect of each systematically Piaget believed this stage isn't universal - not everyone reaches it

Answer 36

1) the stage model depicts children's thinking as being more consistent than it is 2) infants and young children are more cognitively competent that Piaget recognized - greatly underestimated their abilities - used really hard tests like making the kid wait to look for hidden object 3) understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development - focuses only on how children come to understand the world in their own efforts 4) it's vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children's thinking and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth - what makes children think a particular way? what produces changes in their thinking?

Answer 37

1) what age the different forms of learning appear 2) in what ways learning in infancy is related to later cognitive abilities 3) the extent to which infants find some things easier or more difficult to learn

Answer 38

reflexes + motivation core knowledge: evolved, special-purpose learning mechanisms

Answer 39

the occurrence of habituation in response to repeated stimulation reveals that learning has taken place - the infant has formed a memory representation of the repeated and now familiar stimulus the speed at which an infant habituated is believed to reflect the general efficiency of the infant's processing of information

Answer 40

the speed with which an infant habituates duration of looking degree of novelty preference infants who habituate relatively rapidly take short looks at visual stimuli and/or who show a greater preference for novelty stimuli tend to have higher IQs when tested as 18 year olds

Answer 41

extracting from events in the environment the relation between those elements that are constant - a key process in perceptual learning ex. infants learn the association between tone of voice and facial expression because in their experience a pleasant happy or eagerly excited ton of voice occurs with a smiling face

Answer 42

the possibilities for action offered, or afforded, by objects and situations - perceptual learning ex. the discover that small objects, but not large ones, afford the possibility of being picked up, that liquid affords the possibility of being poured/spilled infants discover affordances by figuring out the relations between their own bodies and abilities and the things around them

Answer 43

learning is not required to detect an event involving sight and sound as unitary ex. a baby naturally perceives a single, coherent event the first time he sees and hears a crystal goblet crashing to the floor BUT one dos have to learn what particular sights and sounds go together so only through experience does the baby know that a particular tinkling sound means a glass is being broken

Answer 44

when the order of appearance of one or more of the shapes the infants looked longer when the structure inherent in the initial set was violated (if the cross always followed the square but then they changed it to a circle after the square) newborn infants track statistical regularities which suggests they're available at/before birth statistical learning has been important in language learning - infants proper patterns that have some variability over patterns that are simple = Goldilocks effect

Answer 45

avoiding patterns that are either too easy or too hard while continuing to focus on those that are just right given the infant's learning abilities --> suggests that infants allocate attention differently to different learning problems, preferentially attending to those patterns that are the most informative

Answer 46

1) habituation 2) perceptual learning 3) statistical learning 4) classical conditioning 5) instrumental conditioning 6) observational learning/imitation 7) rational learning

Answer 47

Ivan Pavlov a form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive response (ringing a bell and salivating dogs) ex. when a baby's sucking motions begin to occur just at the sigh of the bottle of milk

Answer 48

a stimulus that evokes a reflexive, unlearned response | the nipple in the infant's mouth

Answer 49

a reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (the sucking reflex)

Answer 50

the neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (the bottle/breast) repeatedly occurs just before the unconditioned stimulus(the baby can see the bottle before receiving the nipple)

Answer 51

the originally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus (anticipatory sucking movements now begins soon as the baby sees the breast or bottle - the sight of the bottle has become a signal of what will follow)

Answer 52

aka operant conditioning involves learning the relationship between one's own behavior and the reward or punishment it results in

Answer 53

part of instrumental conditioning a reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated ex. push a lever which causes a toy train to move along a track ex. 2 m.o. had a string tied around their ankle and when they kicked it made the mobile above them move

Answer 54

related to positive reinforcement if the infant makes the target response, then he or she receives the reinforcement

Answer 55

1) 3 m.o. remember the kicking response for about 1 week whereas 6 m.o. remember it for 2 weeks 2) infants younger than 6 m.o. remember the kicking response only when the test mobile is identical to the training mobile whereas older infants remember it with novel mobiles

Answer 56

kids as young as 6-9 moths imitated touching their foreheads to a box if they saw a model doing it however if they model was clutching a shawl and saying they were cold, the kid would touch the box with their hand because they reason that the model would've touched it with their hand if they could've - based on intentions

Answer 57

if 18 m.o. saw an adult trying but failing to pull apart a small dumbbell toy, the infants when given the toy would pull the two ends apart imitating what the adult had intended to do, not what they had actually done established that infants' imitative actions are limited to human acts because when a different group of 18 m.o. watched a mechanical device w/ pincers grasp and either pull apart or slip trying to, they rarely attempted to pull apart the dumbbell themselves

Answer 58

first observed in nonhuman primates this system becomes activated when the monkey engages in an action or when the macaque merely observed another monkey/human engaging in an action, as though the macaque itself were engaging in the same action

Answer 59

it involves integrating the learner's prior beliefs and biases with what actually occurs in the environment violation-of-expectation paradigms ex. in a box filled with balls, 70 are blue and 5 are white. when the experimenter draw out 4 white and 1 blue ball the kids stare longer at that than when it's 4 blue and one white because they realize the odds are likely that 4 white balls got pulled - however when the balls came from somewhere else, like experimenter's pocket, they weren't surprised

Answer 60

a procedure used to study infant cognition in which infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it violated something the infant knows or assumes to be true

Answer 61

when a baby is shown an attractive toy and then the room is plunged into darkness, the baby will reach to where they last saw the object indicating that they still expect it to be there- they reach for objects they can't see!

Answer 62

1) kids watched a solid screen rotate back and forth 180 degrees 2) a box was placed in the screen's path 3) the possible event the screen rotated upward, occluded the box, and stopped when it contacted the box - in the impossible even the screen continued to rotate a full 180 degrees appearing to pass though the space occupied by the box infants as young as 3.5 looked longer at the impossible even than the possible one researched rationed that the full rotation would be more interesting or surprising than the partial rotation only if the infants expected the screen to stop when it reached the box and the only reason for them to have had that expectation was if they thought the box was still present - that is that they mentally represented an object they could no longer see results also indicate that the infants expected the box to remain in place

Answer 63

a child is shown two pink circles and four blue circles under them Piaget's question: are there more blue circles or more circles all together? (mess up) Marksman's question: are there more baby circles or more circles in the family? (get it right) the child says there’s more blue circles - in order to realize there’s more circles total than blue circles, you have to shift your attention - the ability to shift attention is not the same as creating logic

Answer 64

u shaped development - two things are developing at the same time - the thing that helps development is delayed in its onset

Answer 65

when you show two rows of identical things and ask which has more, the kid says they're the same - but when you spread one row and ask again, the kid will say the spread out row has more when someone asks you the same question twice, the second time you might think they’re asking you for something else - maybe that's what's happening and it's not that the kids don't know they are still the same u-shaped development

Answer 66

“Oh look! It’s naughty teddy! He’s going to spoil the game!” they have a reason for why the rows are spread apart and don’t look the same - now the children will show perfect conservation because they can blame them looking different on naughty teddy - really the problem is conversational problems, not conservation

Answer 67

Between-concept changes not stage- like: 1) Successful conservation of liquid, solid, and numeric quantity do not rise (or fall) together as if they were part of a general pattern of thinking (Siegler, 1981) 2) Characteristic errors on one type of conservation (e.g., liquid) do not reliably predict types of errors on other types of conservation (e.g., number) Within-concept changes not stage-like: 1) Even within a particular conservation task (e.g., numeric quantity), children’s errors do not follow a set sequence - regressions are common - “stages”are skipped - frequency of correct responses often emerge gradually

Answer 68

Children are terrible experimenters; they do not learn to control variables systematically on their own (Klahr, 2004) you remove the barrier and the child has to guess how far the ball will go - steep ramp/shallow, smooth vs. rough surface, if the second part of the ramp is inclined or not - child needs to decide which variables are important or not - after weeks of children interacting with this problem, kids that weren’t getting feedback never showed any evidence of improvement of isolating the variables that effected the problem - if they did get feedback and were taught the experimental benefit, they got better over time

Answer 69

Very greatly overestimated older children’s abilities 1) formal operations do not appear to emerge spontaneously as children act of the world 2) regardless of age, people reach equilibriation

Answer 70

children are very seldom interested in attaining detailed causal understanding (though they do believe it exists) - they're satisfied with the basic understanding of things ex. helicopter rotors: what people think they know vs. what they actually know

Answer 71

- mischaracterized cognitive change as stage like offered no insight into how change occurs - underestimated preschoolder and infant thinking - overestimated adult thinking

Answer 72

1. construct their own knowledge from experimenting on the world. 2. learn many things on their own without the intervention of older children or adults. 3. are intrinsically motivated to learn and do not need rewards from adults to motivate learning Counter-evidence 1. Piaget generally underestimated preschoolers’cognitive abilities by using needlessly misleading tasks 2. Even using Piaget’s tasks, changes in performance were not stage-like

Answer 73

1) Sociocultural approach: • Children’s thinking is affected by social interactions 2) Core Knowledge approach: • Infants and young children have and use a lot of innate mental machinery for complex abstract thought 3) Information processing approach: • Children’s thinking is a computational process • Children’s thinking is not as consistent as the stages suggest.

Answer 74

Lev Vygotsky portrayed children as social beings intertwined with other people who were eager to help them learn and gain skills child as an apprentice

Answer 75

- Some of children’s abilities are culturally-dependent - Some cognitive change originates in social interaction - Children are both learners and teachers.

Answer 76

Vygotsky, unlike Piaget, thought that abstract thinking could not develop on its own, but required language and Western schooling - To test this, Vygotsky tested peasants in Uzbekistan, varying in age, sex, and exposure to the new schools that had been established - Of these variables, only schooling correlated with abstract thinking

Answer 77

Unschooled Adult Peasant: ex. Cotton can grow only where it is hot and dry. In England it is cold and damp. Can cotton grow there? "I don’t know" no attempt to link these abstract ideas through logic without the Soviet schools these are the kind of people that we have running around - maybe it’s that the people who don’t trust the Soviet’s - not because of differences in cognitive abilities, but in differences of the origin of the questions - so the people that are in the school’s and trust the Soviet’s will answer more logically while the adults that don’t go to school are the one’s that don’t trust the Soviet’s

Answer 78

"If Juan and Jose drink a lot of beer, the mayor of the town gets angry. Juan and Jose are drinking a lot of beer now. Do you think the mayor is angry with them? Kpelle woman: "No - so many men drink beer, why should the mayor get angry?" this is called a counter-factual: because infact the mayor of the town is unlikely to get mad because most men drink beer so why would the mayor get mad

Answer 79

1) indirect social supports | 2) zone of proximal development

Answer 80

1) Joint attention 2) Social referencing 3) Social scaffolding

Answer 81

Infants and social partners focus on common referent ex. a baby is interacting with their mom, their mom is labeling things in their environment - Dr. Hopper says that something is a “dax” so you look up to see what it is - you can’t base what something is based off of what you hear and see at the same time - like if mom is on the phone talking about yoga but the baby is looking at an eraser….

Answer 82

Children look to social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar events ex. use other people as a tie breaker between things they think are mutually likely

Answer 83

More competent people provide temporary frameworks that lead children to higher- order thinking. ex. breaking up a word so that a kid knows how to read it

Answer 84

The range between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal social support ex. if you can put together kids that are at different developmental stages then you get magic - this is the same idea that’s behind peer tutoring

Answer 85

1) Social support is often a necessary but insufficient condition for cognitive development (Siegler & Liebert, 1983) ex. would give a conservation problem to a kid and then to Bob Liebert - Liebert would give the correct answer in a very authoritative voice - if the social interaction is doing it’s work then the children should be getting better - this didnt happen: the kids just ignored the higher order thinking because they thought it was dumb 2) zone of proximal development is almost impossible to falsify- you can never know what that range of that child’s cognitive system is, you have to infer it after the fact 3) Peers can be terrible teachers because their confidence outweighs their competence (Levin & Druyan, 1993) ex. kids were asked if the ball on the inner or outer circle would go faster - if they leave at the same time and arrive back at the same time that means that the outer person was running faster - but kid’s don’t say that......if you pair them up with a kid who got the answer right with someone who got it wrong - it’s more likely that the kid who got it wrong will convince the kid who got it right that the are wrong because the smarter kid isn’t confident in their answer - then kids were actually put on the inside and the outside and they could tell that they had to walk faster on the outside and understand the concept for weeks on end

Answer 86

counter - factual: If Juan and Jose drink a lot of beer, the mayor of the town gets angry. Juan and Jose are drinking a lot of beer now. Do you think the mayor is angry with them? (people need schooling) ordinary: If the horse is well fed, it cannot work very well. Today, Rama’s horse was well fed. Can it work very well today? (people get these regardless of schooling)

Answer 87

1. Social interactions aren’t as supportive as hypothesized 2. Peers can be terrible teachers 3. Some forms of syllogistic reasoning seem to be universal and not require schooling

Answer 88

contemporary: formation-processing theories and core knowledge theories classical: Piaget & Vygotsky: false (P) or difficult to falsify (V)

Answer 89

- No heroic theorists - No canonical texts - Family resemblance structure - Still evaluating...

Answer 90

- Child as Computer - Concerned with the development of domain-general processes • learning, • memory,and • problem-solving skills. - Provides detailed description of the steps involved in thinking (like a computer program) domain general processing

Answer 91

whatever the content is, it’s the same kind of process - it’s the same for writing at essay vs love note vs fiction novel

Answer 92

kid asks dad to unlock the basement door. dad asks why. kid says because she wants to ride her bike. dad says her bike is in the garage. the kid says but her socks are in the dryer.

Answer 93

1) Thinking is information processing 2) Change is produced by a process of continuous self- modification: the computer learning how to play chess - records probability of opening moves against victory 3) The steps of change can be precisely specified by identifying mechanisms of change

Answer 94

1) SPEED of memory processes change with practice the speed is based on soft ware, not hardware - Associating events with one another - Recognizing objects as familiar - Generalizing from one instance to another - Encoding (representing features of objects and events in memory) 2) RULES and STRATEGIES - Rules are are like lines of code in a computer program; children add and subtract rules over development (balance problem with different weights and different locations on the see saw) - Strategies are flexible approaches to solving problems; strategies compete with another over development (ex. how would a computer solve 7+6)

Answer 95

increase in processing speed: the curve is a power function - it’s important because we know from Ebbinghouse that there’s a power law of practice - it sugests that practice is what causes the change in processing speed

Answer 96

1) blind obedience 2) fear of punishment 3) maintaining relationships 4) laws/duties 5) universal principles

Answer 97

Child as Primate Scientist - Children have innate cognitive capabilities that are the product of human evolutionary processes. - Focus on human universals (e.g., language, social cognition, biological categorization, using numbers) - Children are much more advanced in their thinking than Piaget suggested.

Answer 98

Children actively organize their understanding into informal causal theories: - psychology - biology - physics

Answer 99

Bottom Line: - Post-Piagetian theories deal with different aspects of development • sometimes conflict between approaches, sometimes greater conflict within an approach - Most researchers view different approaches as complementary - No Grand Unified Theory (yet)

Answer 100

- A type of communication - but not just any type of communication - Language involves symbolic reference and generative grammar

Answer 101

Indicative reference involves responding distinctively to stimuli in the presence of an observer ex. Vervet monkeys make distinctive calls depending on whether the predator is a snake, a leopard, or an eagle; for the other monkeys, these calls indicate the presence of a certain predator - they only make these sounds when another vervet monkey is around - if the vervet monkey made the snake sound then all the other vervet monkeys would run up into a tree as if they knew a snake was around - then for an eagle they’d lie down low or go down into a hole, idk

Answer 102

Symbolic reference involves an arbitrary sign that stands for a class of objects that may or may not be present ex. A boy can say “wolf” to refer to one wolf (”help! wolf!”), several wolves (”observe the wolf in his natural habitat”), or no wolves (”Yup, I’m a wolf scout”). gives enormous flexibility to language - a huge advancement - vervet monkey doesn’t have the capacity to say something with the lack of a stimuli - ex. if they found magos they wouldn’t be able to call oo oo and make all the other monkey’s hide so he could eat them all

Answer 103

A generative grammar is a set of rules that determines the form and meaning of sentences - A discrete combinatorial system (vs. blending) gives rise to infinite creativity - The grammar conveys meanings apart from the meanings of the words themselves ex. Dog bites man vs. Man bites dog in order to tell the difference between these you have something in your mind other than words = grammar

Answer 104

a code for combining referential symbols expressed in sounds/images

Answer 105

B.F. Skinner was confident that language could be explained by reference to just those principles of behavior formulated on the basis of results with animal subjects. For example, if a reinforcer is delivered frequently with high intensity it should increase the likelihood of behavior. if you want a rat to get through a maze, whenever it gets to a critical turn you give it food of high value

Answer 106

Chomsky: To say that each bit of verbal behaviour is under stimulus control is a scientifically empty claim, because some stimulus can be posited to occasion any response he says the rules of language aren’t like learning to run through mazes - completely rips apart Skinner's theory

Answer 107

if your kid gives you a really nice picture: Skinner: "nice, nice, nice" Chomsky: "crooked, isn't it?" or "remember that camping trip we took last summer?" just made of ways of trying to explain the reason between the stimulance and the verbal response which is what skinner is trying to do - but Chomsky says that’s crazy you can’t do that because you have to link them through some abstraction

Answer 108

Chomsky: - Grammatical rules are aspects of the human mind that link spoken sentences to the mind’s system for representing meanings. (words are similar but not the same) - All generative grammars are based on fundamental rules that are innate properties of the human mind - The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) was Chomsky’s shorthand for universal grammatical rules and for the inborn mechanisms that guide children’s learning of the unique rules of their culture’s language. there are certain universals that all languages have in common (marking the doer, marking what is being done) = all languages have a universal grammer

Answer 109

mouth/ears --> phonology --> lexicon, morphology, syntax --> semantics --> beliefs/desires language is a code and not just a stimulus - then you can understand how humans are able to reflect an infinate number of meanings when the stimulus is very narrow

Answer 110

rules that define the sound pattern of a language which sounds are relevant?

Answer 111

stored entries for words, including irregulars

Answer 112

rules for forming complex words, including regulars

Answer 113

rules for forming phrases and structures

Answer 114

meanings expressed through language the meanings of all sentences

Answer 115

shows a picture of a bird and says it’s a “wug” —> then they show to wugs and ask “now there are two…” and the kid says “wugs” which shows that the kid has a rule for inflecting/changing a regular noun or verb

Answer 116

Rule for regulars: “The past tense of a verb may be formed from the verb followed by the suffix -ed” being able to take morphemes and add them to words to create “wugs” “wuging” etc. walk --> walked bod --> boded

Answer 117

a case of grammar without meaning - it sounds like english - how is possible that has no intrinsic meaning sounds like grammar? this doesn’t actually make any sense but it follows grammar rules - the idea is that as long as you can plug sentences in to generative grammar then you can tell if it’s following rules or not

Answer 118

1) Genetic disorders affect specific aspects of language (e.g., affecting vocabulary but not syntax, or vice-versa)(if LAD is real then it’s composed of parts that are encoded by our genes) 2) Specific aspects of language are also disrupted by specific brain damage 3) Language learning goes through a universal sequence of development (we don’t learn language, we grow language -if language is something that grows then children in all languages should have some similar aspects of development) 4) Young children invent grammar when it is lacking in the environment (even in an environment without grammar, children will develope it anyways) 5) Language, like many other innate abilities, seems to go through a “critical period” (example of experience-expectant) 6) Only humans are capable of acquiring language

Answer 119

(Gopnik & Crago, 1991) a problem with inflectional morphology - being able to take morphemes and add them to words to create “wugs” “wuging” etc. Among 31 members of the KE family spanning 3 generations, 50% were impaired (as if the syndrome were controlled by one dominant gene or string of genes sitting next to each other on the chromosome = Mendelian distribution) members were taken a stretch of genes on chromosome 7 (SPCH1) correlated perfectly with existence of impairment SPCH1 known to affect axon pathfinding, production of kinases, and growth and differentiation all this suggests that there is something biological in this production of language

Answer 120

1) specific language impairment | 2) william's syndrome

Answer 121

- deletion of about ten adjacent genes on chromosome 7 - very low IQ, but high social skills and very high language ability* (if language was simply a matter of intelligence then this group of people wouldn’t exist - the kid who is trashing Hopper’s office tells him he has nice eyelashes (social skills)) - Exceptional (if odd) vocabulary: high in low- frequency words; evacuate the glass, birds: shrike and spear hawk - Hyper-overregularize: overregularize irregulars (e.g., catched and sleeped), pass Wug test, but do terribly at guessing new genders (e.g., bicron as masculine, faldine as feminine) - only focuses on whether it follows the rules of the language, not the statistics: so a Williams kid will say “evacuate the glass” which is technically right but like….also they pass the wug test but can’t do irregulars like today i catch, yesterday i caught

Answer 122

Genes of one group (SLI) impairs their grammar and ability to regularize but not their IQ; genes of another (Williams) impairs their IQ but not their grammar and ability to regularize the machinery of intelligence and or language are completely different - you can dissociate them

Answer 123

- Damage to the posterior LH (Wernicke’s area) typically results in anomia, a difficulty in retrieving words despite otherwise fluent speech: • “She wikses a zen from me.” • “He mivs in a love-beautiful home” • “Waitresses. Waitrixies. A backland and another bank. For bandicks er bandicks I think they are, I believe their zandicks, I’m sorry, but they’re called flitters landocks.” [attempting to name a box of matches] - Fine at inflecting novel verbs like plam and often overregularize (like digged)

Answer 124

Damage to the anterior LH (Broca’s area) typically results in agrammatism, a difficulty in producing fluent speech despite otherwise intact vocabulary • “Son..university..smart...boy..good...good” • “Lower falls..Maine...Paper. Four hundred tons a day!” • Misread smile as “smiled” or wanted as “wanting” but do not commit similar errors for irregulars • Incapable of inflecting novel words (e.g., plam) and never overregularize irregulars (e.g., digged) • Walk does not prime walked, but found primes find and goose primes swan fail wug test

Answer 125

Anomics have preserved mental machinery for producing grammar and regular words; agrammatics have preserved mental machinery for memorized words (including irregulars) but impaired machinery for following rules

Answer 126

1) Phonological Development 2) Semantic Development 3) Syntactic Development all this shows is there’s different parts of language which shows that they’re likely to develope in parallel but not together

Answer 127

1) speech perception 2) playing with phonemes 3) first words

Answer 128

Speech Perception – Perceiving the mother’s voice: – As early as 3 days old, infants prefer to listen to human speech rather than music. – Infants as young as 2 hours old prefer to hear the sound of their mother’s voice to that of another woman. (not just having a bias for linguistic information but also specifically for their mother’s tongue ) Perceiving the mother tongue: – Babies under 6 months can hear the difference between any 2 phonemes in any of the world’s languages (Werker) – After that they can only perceive the differences used in their native language. (causes a critical period in language development b/c what this suggests is that our window of our ability to develop language is closing - this is why after a certain age it’s hard to speak without an accent)(ex. can hear the difference between “ra” and “la” but in Japanese there’s no difference between ra and la but the babies can hear the difference between these two phonemes - as babies learn to get better at hearing the phonemes of their own language they lose the ability to hear the phonemes of other languages)

Answer 129

– In the first 8 weeks, infants just cry, burp, cough, and sneeze. – Between 8-20 weeks, they playfully draw out their vowels (oooooooh-ooooooh) in cooing. (don't hear anyone else doing this) – Between 16-30 weeks, they produce single distinctive syllables (vocal play: ba, da, ga, etc.), and between 25-50 weeks, they repeat strings of alternative vowels and consonants (reduplicative babbling: dada, mama, dadada). – Finally, between 9 to 18 months, reduplicative babbling takes on a variety of stress and intonational patterns in a sort of expressive jargon (irish vs. cleveland baby) babies say da before ma - this proof because deaf babies say da first as well - so they think that the baby likes dada more than mama

Answer 130

– Early words seem to consist of many performatives, which are wordlike sounds that accompany very specific actions. For example, one child used the word nenene only for scolding and tt when calling squirrels (Leopold, 1949). – Later these sounds may be used simply for describing the world

Answer 131

semantic development: word reference imagine that your an anthropologists and you go to some island and meet up with a tribe of people who have never spoken english and your job is to create a dictionary that’ll allow you to translate between your language and the native language - what the anthropologists would do is obtain an informant - you and the informant are out in the woods and there’s a clearning and in the distance you see a rabbit and the informant looks in the distance and yells gavagai - this could mean the hill but your first instinct is the rabbit - but it could mean green, look, etc. but when we hear it we assume rabbit - what makes language learning easy is we’re built with assumptions

Answer 132

using a word more broadly than an adult would use - using a cow to refer to any animal or mom for any woman - it’s not that they think they’re the same thing it’s just that they don’t have a word for dog so they call it a cow but when they learn dog they’ll never use cow for a dog again ex. extending ball to oranges, planets, and plates. an error that children make

Answer 133

using a term more narrowly than adult usage would allow. For example, extending up only to being taken up into a parent’s arms, rather than as a general spatial term. failure to generalize - they call her mommy only in the kitchen but not in the living room

Answer 134

Toddlers assume that novel labels refer to the whole object and not to its parts, substance, or other properties. (when they hear gavagi, they think it’s rabbit, not “furry” or “legs”) ex. Soja, Carey, and Spelke (1991) introduced toddlers to a novel object made of a novel distinctive substance, saying, “This is my blicket.” Then the children were shown an object of the same shape but different material and pieces of an object made of the original material. When asked to find the blicket, the toddlers consistently chose the whole object.

Answer 135

When toddlers learn new words, they focus on taxonomic rather than thematic relations Markman and Hutchinson (1984) presented toddlers with two taxonomically related objects, such as a dog and a cat, and a third object that was thematically related, such as dog food. When simply asked to find two objects that are alike, most toddlers selected the dog and dog food. However, when the dog was labeled with the new word dax and children were asked to find another dax, they reliably selected the cat - this suggests that kids think words refers to kinds of things rather than thematic relations

Answer 136

toddlers prefer one label per object (you can call a rabbit a hare, bunny, animal, mammal - babies don’t have this assumption because they think that everything belongs to one class) ex. Liittschwager and Markman (1994) taught 16-month-olds a novel label for either an object that already had a known name or for one that did not: the babies learned the first labels but not the second - if you show a kid a spoon and a tongue scraper (which they’ve never seen before) and you ask them show me the dax, they’ll point to the scraper - they don’t assume that dax could be another word for spoon - it’s a very powerful assumption - hard to overcome ex. Markman and Wasow (1999) placed objects with well known labels (e.g., spoons) on a table, and asked 16-month-olds, “Can you show me the mido?” Rather than picking up the spoon, they spontaneously looked around the room for the mido - this shows how strong the mutual exclusivity assumption is

Answer 137

1) word reference: Gavagai problem 2) over-extension 3) under-extension 4) whole objection assumption 5) taxonomic assumption 6) mutual exclusivity assumption

Answer 138

syntactic development

Answer 139

1) telegraphic speech

Answer 140

(18-24 months) consists of simple two-word combinations (Brown, 1973) – For example, Mommy fix, Mommy sock, Baby table – Although these sentences do not appear grammatical on the surface (as in Mother gave John lunch in the kitchen), children’s two-word utterances do preserve grammatical order. .......Clearly, there is more going on inside than what is coming out: when a kid says Mommy fix, they’ve just not included the object - evidence of early grammar? agent --> action --> recipient -->object --> location

Answer 141

- To test this, Naigles took toddlers who spoke in only single words and seated them in front of two television screens, each of which featured a pair of adults dressed up as Cookie Monster and Big Bird. - One screen showed Cookie Monster tickling Big Bird; the other the opposite. - Meanwhile, the children heard a voiceover, “OH LOOK!!! BIG BIRD IS TICKLING COOKIE MONSTER!! FIND BIG BIRD TICKLING COOKIE MONSTER!!” (or vice versa). - Babies reliably looked at the screen that depicted the sentence they heard, suggesting they understood word order before they were producing linguistically sophisticated utterances means they understood the grammatical meaning of what they heard even though they aren’t able to use it themselves

Answer 142

If grammar is a tree, then the grammar of a two-year-old begins like a trunk with a single branch that grows bushier and bushier. Consider these sentences from a little boy called Adam over the course of a year the sentences get longer (mean length of utterance), becoming more grammatically complex, adds determiners (“a”, “the”), starts asking questions and inverts the subject verb,recursions (embedding phrases in sentences) ex. The two-year-olds’ Give doggie paper (three-branch verb phrase) and Big doggie (two-branch noun phrase) becomes the three-year-olds’ Give big doggie paper (two-branch noun phrase embedded inside the middle branch of the three-branch verb phrase) ex. Acquisition of function words ex. Acquisition of inflections ex. acquisition of auxiliaries maybe they should get a broader sample of people and time - so now they got sony walkmans that were voice activated and they’d put them on a vest and that the kid would wear and whenever the kid talked it recorded

Answer 143

like of, the, on, and does By 3, children are using these function words more often than they omit them, many in more than 90% of the sentences that require them.

Answer 144

ed, -ing, and -s. - Inflections are not simply memorized, but are applied creatively. - Jean Berko (1958) showed children a funny shaped thing and told them “This is a wug.” Then she showed them two of the funny shaped things, and continued “Now there is another one. There are two of them. There are two ____.” The three-year-olds had no trouble inferring that there were two wugs - they learn a rule to add “ed” to make it past tense so now the older kids are looking less advanced because now they’ll say “i goed” to the grocery store instead of i went

Answer 145

(“helping verbs”) like can, should, must, be, have, and do – There are about 24 billion billion logically possible combinations of auxiliaries (e.g., He have might eat; He did be eating), of which only a hundred are grammatical (He might have eaten; He has been eating). – Stromswold (1990) analyzed some of the errors that would be logical generalizations of the sentence patterns children heard from their parents. For example, adults turn He seems happy into Does he seem happy? Children might be tempted then to turn She could go into Does she could go? Or: I like going becomes He likes going, so I can go might be He cans go. Of 66,000 sentences Stromswold analyzed, she found no errors. you can’t have trial and error learning without errors so clearly trial and error learning isn’t what’s going on here - the poverty of the stimulus argument - the input vastly indetermines the actual complexity of the system that’s meant to be learned

Answer 146

1) Adam’s hypothesis: imitating parents (not true) 2) Saffran: Detecting statistical regularities in the input 3) Marcus:learning algebraic-like rules 4) MacWhinney: rote-rule-analogy (they simply know something by rote and they make an analogy 5) Bickerton: there is no learning - because what’s going on is that grammar is invented by children and parent’s have the grammar that they do because they’re kids are all grown up

Answer 147

Dad: where's the big piece of paper i gave you yesterday? Kid: remember? i writed on it Dad: Oh, that's right even though the kid said something wrong the dad gave him positive feedback - the dad is talking about the content, not the grammatical form Kid: nobody don't like me Mom: no, say nobody likes me kid: ohhh, nobody don't likeS me! even though there were multiple trial error, what the kid takes away from it is just the opposite of what the mom intended again what this suggests is that there’s a kind of fruitlessness to trying to teach a two year old grammar

Answer 148

children don't learn grammar from their parents

Answer 149

Pidgins are choppy strings of words borrowed from overheard language. – For example, the Atlantic slave trade and indentured servitude in the South Pacific was supported in part by mixing laborers from different languages. – To carry out practical matters, the speaker of the different languages had to develop a make shift jargon drawn from the speech of their masters. this make shift jargon become the pidgins that the laborers use

Answer 150

Hawaiian sugar business, which had to import workers from China, Japan, Korea, Portugal, the Phillipines, and Puerto Rico, whereupon a pidgin quickly developed. – Bickerton (1984) studied this system and recorded such sentences as • Me cape buy, me check make. (He bought my coffee; he made me out a check.) • Building--high place--will pat--time--nowtime--an’ den--a new tempecha eri time show you. (a description of an electric sign that displayed time and temperature) • Good, dis one. Kaukau any-kin’ dis one. Pilipine islan’ no good. No mo money. (It’s better here than in the Phillipines; here you can get all kinds of food, but over there there isn’t any money to buy food with.)

Answer 151

pidgins can be converted to creoles, with a full range of grammatical rules, in one generation by the children who grow up hearing the grammarless pidgin. Examples from the Hawaiian Creole of a Japanese papaya grower born in Maui. ex. Da firs japani came ran away from japan come. (The first Japanese who arrived ran away from Japan to here.)

Answer 152

Communists took over nicaragaua • The Sandinistas assembled and forced deaf adults to lip-read Spanish (a policy that almost always fails - if you’re born deaf, lip reading doesn’t work) • The adults adapted to the ineffective Sandinista policy by developing a pidgin sign language (no gramatical markers, no cononical word order) • As Bickerton would have predicted, the children of these adults converted the pidgin sign language into a true grammatical language, which is now the official sign language of Nicaragua. this shows that even in an environment with no grammar, kids will invent it - it’s as if we have a language acquisition device that we’re just waiting for grammar to be imposed upon

Answer 153

``` • Isabelle – Discovered at the age of six, Isabelle was raised by a deaf single mother who was emotionally indifferent to Isabelle’s well-being. She had no language, and her cognitive development was below normal for a two-year-old. Within a year of foster care, she learned to speak, her intelligence was tested as normal, and she joined a class of second graders who spoke about as well as she did. ex. "why does the paste come out of the jar?" ``` • Genie – Discovered at the age of 14, Genie had been tied to a chair since about 20 months old. She was frequently beaten and never spoken to (but sometimes barked at--her father said she was no more than a dog). – Taken into foster care, Genie was given focused one-on-one training and therapy by psychologists and linguists for seven years. But Genie never became a normal language user, never acquiring function words nor combining propositions together in elaborate sentences ex. "applesauce buy store"

Answer 154

There was a made up experiment where there were two tribes that had a disputed territory and the tribe that got the land would be based on what language a kid in the disputed territory ended up speaking

Answer 155

Many congenitally deaf children have parents who refuse (like the Sandinistas) to allow their children access to ASL. (the result is that these kids often have no language until their parents come to their senses and take them to a school of the deaf) – Such children’s fist exposure, therefore, is late in life. – Newport (1990) examined the language of these adults as a function of when they were first exposed to ASL. In short, although all could use ASL fairly fluently (after 30 years practice!), those who had been first exposed after 11 were consistently less fluent than those who had been first exposed at 4, who were less fluent than those who grew up with ASL. it suggests that there is infact a critical period for learning language

Answer 156

Johnson & Newport (1989) found similar evidence in the English proficiency of Japanese and Korean immigrants who had come to the United States and had begun learning English either as children or as adults Either they arrived in the US between 3-15 and 17-39: what she found is that the mean score of the subjects of the grammar tests is that there is a very strong relation - those born or arrived between 3-7, have native like proficiency - then you look at kids 11-15 and you see a huge deficit -those that arrive as adults have the lowest level of proficiency despite some of them having 30 years of practice - we may lose our ability to think grammatically in a second language just like we lose our ability to perceive different phonemes

Answer 157

Given that..... 1. human languages seem to share a universal structure 2. human language learning is characterized by a universal sequence and timing of acquisition 3. children are able to learn this structure even when it is absent from their environment 4. language acquisition appears to have a critical period, humans seem to have an innate head start in learning language - all this suggests that humans have a head start in learning language - if it’s unique to humans it would suggest that this genetic brain based device is not shared across other primates

Answer 158

Kellog experiment: – Early attempts to teach animals to learn involved raising a baby chimp along side a baby human. – After seven years of treating both very similarly, the outcome was a mute chimp and normally speaking child. maybe the problem isn’t that chimps can’t learn language it’s just that they can’t learn a spoken language because of the way that the pharinx is lodged in the trachea so it’s not too surprising that he was mute

Answer 159

In 1966, Allen and Beatrix Gardner attempted to teach a young female chimp named Washoe a modified version of ASL. – After four years, Washoe had learned about 130 signs for objects (banana, hand), actions (bite, tickle), and action modifiers (enough, more). – During this same period a child learns about 10,000 words. (There are about 15,000 in all of Shakespeare’s collected works.) – Washoe never learned to combine these signs syntactically (he would say things like “bananna bananna banna, me me me, you you you”) Washoe almost never used the symbols for things that weren’t present

Answer 160

– The most successful attempt has been made with Kanzi, a bonobo whose mother was being trained to use lexigrams for communication. – Seeing what his mother could not do, Kanzi was eager to communicate using the lexigrams, and later used around 200 of them to announce his future intentions and to describe states of the world. (did pass the threshold of the symbolic reference - seemed to have gotten down the symbolic reference) – However, no ape to date has acquired or invented a rule for distinguishing plural from singular nouns, for marking the tense of verbs, or for marking any words by grammatical class, which all 3 year old children do even when their parents do not. (kids in pidgon languages do this^ which make it seem like there’s something unique about the human language acquisition device )

Answer 161

mental groupings of more-or-less interchangeable elements - concepts are basic elements of thinking Objects: dog, island Events (lunch, birthday) Qualities (sweet, fast) Abstractions (true, good)

Answer 162

language: most words symbolize concepts there are concepts that aren’t symbolized by words and there are words that don’t symbolize concepts = operators: “and, or, not, of, the”

Answer 163

concepts link our past and future experiences with the present Ex. If I recognize Lassie to be a dog, I can reasonably infer that Lassie has some of the same properties of the dogs I’ve met before and will meet in the future

Answer 164

concepts allow us to generalize new experiences Ex. If I know that Lassie and Fido are dogs, and I learn that Lassie and Fido have FRTG-23 in their cells, I can infer that other dogs might too.

Answer 165

1) its relation to other concepts (semantic network) the place of a concept within what is called a semantic network 2) knowledge about the units of the concept (schemas) if you learn something specific about a concept like Lassie has a spleen - then you’re going to update your dog category to include that dogs have spleens

Answer 166

Islands are bodies of land, islands are totally surrounded by water Islands have beaches, Sometimes the beaches are sandy, with sea shells, People travel to islands where there is warm weather and palm trees, Australia is the biggest island in the world The combination of N. and S. America is not an island some of these things relate islands to other things = semantic network objects --> nonliving --> natural --> land masses --> islands -->Hawaii/Australia this means that if i know a fact about something at the top, it includes everything below it - if you want to discern a fact about something at the bottom, you have to travel up the hierarchy

Answer 167

Is a: land mass Shape: any closed figure Material: stone,dirt,sand Function: habitat, vacation spot Size: ≈ 1 - 8,000,00 sq km think of a schema like your address book: it’ll have Bob’s name, address, picture, number, email etc. - an address book is a kind of data base - we also represent our knowledge as a data base which allows us to sort things based on any one of the categories and store information as it comes in

Answer 168

Neil asked children two kinds of questions 1) +D/-C: On this piece of land,there are apartment buildings, snow, and no green things growing. This pieces of land is surrounded by water on all sides. Could that be an island? (he’d ask about something that has a defining feature but lacks the characteristic features of islands) 2) +C/-D: There is this place that sticks out land like a finger. Coconut trees and palm trees grow there, and the girls sometimes wear flowers in their hair because it’s so warm all the time. There is water on all sides except one. Could that be an island? (asks about something that has all the characteristic features but lacks the defining feature) For the concept island, 5- year-olds most often categorized by characteristic features, whereas 9-year-olds most often categorized by defining features - this pattern was observed for many other concepts that have defining features kindergarteners will almost always say it’s a member of a feature if it has the characteristic features but lacks the defining feature but not if its the opposite - by the time they reach the fourth grade, the kid only cares about the defining features and not the characteristic ones

Answer 169

Piaget’s theory: children begin to think taxonomically Information processing approach: children’s knowledge is heavily influenced by‘cue validity’ Core knowledge approach: children acquire new causal beliefs or a new application of old causal beliefs Children’s knowledge isn’t just guided by how similar things are to each other but the causal relationships that exist - what develops is new causal relationships which changes the way they think

Answer 170

Concepts are equivalent to defining features - uncle = mother's brother or aunt's husband Preoperational children fail on tasks like Keil’s because they do not yet represent taxonomic (proportional) relations among concepts, but base their judgments on thematic relations (what tends to hang out together)

Answer 171

Based view on children’s object sorting, “Put together what goes together” Preschoolers: put dogs and cars together because dogs like to ride in cars, and cats and chairs together because cats like to curl up in chairs older children: put dogs and cats together because they’re animals, and put cars and chairs together because they’re artifacts what’s emerging is taxonomic reasoning - is it possible that the preschoolers aren’t thinking taxonomically based on their sorting

Answer 172

Children might represent taxonomic relations, but find thematic ones more interesting. Bauer and Mandler (1989) showed 1-year-olds a monkey in a tree, a bear in the woods, and a banana - when they asked the kids to find one just like the monkey, they would pick the bear 85% of the time

Answer 173

Even on Keil’s task, kindergartners sometimes use defining features, especially for moral terms

Answer 174

``` -D/+C: This girl hated a boy in her class because he was so mean and did really nasty things to her. She wanted to get him into trouble, so she told the teacher all the nastythingstheboyhadreallydone. Could that be a lie? has the characteristics of a lie but lacks defining feature because it’s not a lie and it’s not an intended falsehood ``` +D/-C: This little boy always got good grades in school and prizes for being so smart. The other children were jealous of him because of it, and he didn’t want to make them feel bad and wanted them to be friends. So, one time, when he really got a good mark on a test, he told them that he got a bad mark so they’d be his friends. Could that be a lie? even though he told an intetional falsehood, he had a good heart about it they stick to the defining characteristic of this moral rule - they know what a lie and non lie is - they have good recognition of other moral characteristics like fair or not fair for moral concepts 5-year-olds and 9- year-olds most often categorize by defining features

Answer 175

- Concepts are more than just defining features - Even for adults, many concepts are difficult to define very precisely (e.g., game) - Precise definitions for some terms are not very useful (dog) it doesn’t give you anything for recognizing what a dog looks like - one reason to think the definition isn’t the way to go Rosch&Mervis(1975)

Answer 176

for the information processing approach, Rosch&Mervis(1975): Instead of defining features, concepts may be represented in terms of probabilistic features - instead of thinking of one defining thing, think of multiple characteristics that have different probabilities Brother of father or mother, OR husband of aunt, p = 1 nice, p = .7 handsome, p = .5 about as old as one's parents, p = .7

Answer 177

Evidence in favor of this view is built around three ideas: - Cue validity - Basic level categories - Prototypes

Answer 178

Children might decide whether objects are examples of one concept or another by comparing cue validities - how people decide if something is or isn't part of the category The cue validity of a feature is the degree to which the frequency of a feature accompanies a category member and the infrequency with which it accompanies non-category members For example, because most (though not all) birds can fly, and because most (though not all) nonbirds cannot fly, flight is a highly valid cue - whiteness very frequently captures snow but also very frequently captures things that aren’t white - so it won’t have very high cue validity

Answer 179

why adults are so much faster to identify robins as birds than ostriches - they’re being influenced by this non-defining but probabilistic feature - zero in on one feature and it’s high cue validity why children are more likely to say that an ostrich is not a bird than to say that a robin is not a bird - for a kid they want all the best evidence: both defining and probabilistic - once they get both they’ll say it’s part of a category

Answer 180

Infants in the first few months are already sensitive to cue validity - This seems to allow them to form basic concepts such as cat on the basis of perceptual information. Quinn & Eimas (1996) showed 3-4 m.o. pictures of pairs of cats - from trial to trial, infants would look equally as long at new cats but more long at a new dog - this suggests that they treated clearly different cats as alike whereas they saw a different dog as not alike this showed they learned the cat category and not just independent examples of cats - what cats have in common is their cat heads, body shape, kinds of postures = cat category - the dog category is enormously varied because it includes anything from a great dane to chihuahuas - kids have an easier time learning cats that exclude dogs than learning dog category that excludes cats

Answer 181

object-concept hierarchy: most general to most specific (is that the same in conceptual development?) john locke’s theory: go from the most specific to the more general --> plato: more general to more specific ex. most general = inanimate objects general = furniture, vehicles medium = chairs, tables specific = arm chair, la-z-boy

Answer 182

Within a given hierarchy, there will always be a basic level category, where cue validities are maximized. For example, in furniture/chair/kitchen chair: - Chair is a basic-level category because its features have the highest cue validities - Legs, a back, and a seat are associated with most chairs (but not beanbag chairs), whereas few other objects have these kitchen chair cue validity problems: there’s one feature with high cue validity which is that it’s in the kitchen furniture: a habitable man made good which is the only feature with high cue validity not just have one feature that distinguished them from other category members which chair has many - rather than going from more general to most specific or vice versa it instead starts with basic category (chair) and then goes either way

Answer 183

Anglin (1977) showed that children typically form basic-level categories before superordinate and subordinate-level categories - no rhyme or reason as to why after they go to superordinate or subordinate - evidence that they’re heavily influenced by cue validity basic: flower superordinate: plant subordinate: rose

Answer 184

Prototypes are the most representative instances of concepts because they have the highest cue validities Lassie is a prototypical dog because she had qualities (e.g., size, shape, bark) representative of dogs in general prototypical = most easily recognized Adults and children are quickest and most accurate in judging the category-membership of prototypes Research also indicates that infants as young as 3 months abstract prototypes from sets of objects (Bomba & Siqueland, 1983; de Haan et al., 2001).

Answer 185

the baby should look at the novel face crazy thing is the other faces are combinations of the original faces and you can barely realize it

Answer 186

For example, when a child encounters a novel object how does she know what features to pay attention to? the wick will tell you if you’re looking at a candle or a block of wax - so if you say this is the thing that should be a prototypic candle: kids don’t even notice the wick Features are not unrelated! - It’s not simply that birds build nests in trees and fly and have wings and have bird DNA - Rather, birds build nests in trees because they can fly, and they can fly because they have wings, and they have wings because they have bird DNA. (A: it can't build nests in trees, B: it doesn't have bird DNA - it needs to have bird DNA to be a bird) - Features are causally related and causal features are most important (and sometimes most difficult) features for children to grasp

Answer 187

- children’s concepts reflect their understanding of cause- effect relations - there's a chain of reasoning that goes through: uncle is --> father’s or mother’s brother OR aunt’s husband, therefore......about the same age as parents and therefore loves mommy/daddy, therefore....loves me

Answer 188

Krascum & Andrews (1998) 1) Two groups of children were given identical descriptions of “Wugs” and “Gillies” 2) Exp group was also told why wugs and gillies had the properties they did - explained the relation between the features to the entities and the entities to the entities ex. wugs have claws to eat the gillie’s and the gillies have wings to run away 3) Exp>Control, categorizing and remembering the categories --> experimental groups are therefore better at identifying what is a wug and what is a gillie

Answer 189

CK Approach emphasizes children’s use of causal relations in reasoning - According to Piaget and Rosch, concepts are formed when different items share many more visual features than they do not share - But many adult concepts involve ignoring visual similarity - The CK Approach argues that children can ignore visual similarity in their reasoning much earlier than Piaget or Rosch supposed

Answer 190

Findings indicating that children go beyond similarity 1) Conservation of identity over metamorphosis (Rosengren et al., 1991) 2) Essentialism(Gelman&Wellman,1991) 3) Category based inference (Gelman & Markman, 1986)

Answer 191

Conservation of identity over metamorphosis (Rosengren et al., 1991) They show a kid a caterpillar and then ask if the butterfly or a big caterpillar is the grown up? they say butterfly, that shouldn’t be possible if all that happens is kids go by perceptual similarities

Answer 192

Essentialism(Gelman&Wellman,1991) they show kids a piggy bank, a pig, and a cow and ask which has the same insides as the pig? the kids say the cow even though the piggy bank looks more similar

Answer 193

Category based inference (Gelman & Markman, 1986) they show kids a bat, a bird that looks like the bat, and a flamingo - the kids are given taxonomic information about the animals then they’re asked will the bird feed its babies milk or mashed up food? they say it’ll give it mashed up food which means they focus on what it is vs. what it looks like

Answer 194

Inheritance-based categorization (Opfer & Bulloch, 2007) egg looks like baby dax but parents look like fep - if they put inheritance above looks (which they do) they’ll say its a baby fep

Answer 195

1) Shift from categorizing objects(e.g.,island) by characteristic features to categorizing by defining features 2) Development of superordinate and subordinate categories (e.g., that a flower is also a plant and a rose) 3) Development of long-term memory for new categories by learning how features are causally related to one another

Answer 196

they organize our experiences of the world WHAT or WHO we experienced (people concepts) HOW MANY things were involved (numerical) WHERE the experience occurred (spatial) WHEN the experience occurred (temporal) WHY the experience occurred (causal)

Answer 197

According to the core knowledge approach, all humans are born with domain-specific learning mechanisms that allow children to acquire skills that other animals do not possess: - language development Question: Are there also innate neural mechanisms for organizing our experiences of people, number, space, time, and causality?

Answer 198

Mechanism for learning words and grammatical rules (in Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas)

Answer 199

Sets of objects that differ in appearance can be equal in number - 3 stars and 3 squares are still the same number of objects Piaget’s studies initially suggested that children fail to recognize numerical equality, leading them to fail the number conservation task

Answer 200

Wynn’s studies of infant addition and subtraction showed that even babies recognize when number has been changed (contrary to Piaget's theory) - McCrink and Wynn (2004) found that babies as young as 9 months could recognize impossible addition and subtraction events babies APPROXIMATELY have a concept of number and have a sense of number not limited to what they can subsitize do children really have a concept of one, two, three….if so they should be able to think with the concept. for this reason, elementary arithmetic provides an important test case

Answer 201

Hypothesis: numerical equality can recognized through two different mechanisms--estimating and counting - estimation is an innate ability - exact counting must be learned

Answer 202

Weber's law states that the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimuli, (and the subject's sensitivity) i.e. if you sense a change in weight of .5 lbs on a 5 pound dumbbell, you ought to feel the extra pound added to a ten pound dumbbell.

Answer 203

- Beyond a small number, people can only approximately quantify objects without counting - To estimate, people and other animals seem to rely on a "number sense", a sense of numeric magnitude 6th grade = start to estimate proper value of numbers on a linear scale

Answer 204

logarithmic: the baby would see two objects that were either apart or together, apart, together - then they’d see three objects and then two objects and switch from apart to together - the babies did better on 2-3 or 3-2 but not so hot on 4-6 or 6-4 (Antell and Keating) —> this logarithmic sense persists into adulthood logarithmic stage vs. linear stage = wrong it’s just tied to the difficulty of the test: when it’s 1-100 the kindergarteners are logarithmic but the 2nd graders that were previously logarithmic are now linear - as the kids learn a little more about numbers they begin to figure out how they’re related to each other - animal sense of number is logarithmic

Answer 205

which is more? 4 or 6 oranges? Children’s sense of the relative sizes of the numbers between 1 and 10 are so approximate that they typically fail this question until around age 5 (when they can count just fine) For many years, children’s sense of numbers--like the sense of rats, pigeons, and chimps--is approximate and progressively underestimates the magnitudes of large numbers

Answer 206

new born babies can represent numbers abstractly - babies can still recognize the commonalities between four bell tolls and four objects - will expect the same number even though they’re different modalities - we also see this in other animals like monkeys: theres a set of neurons that’s like the wernick’s area of numbers: when the monkey sees one object a neuron will fire like crazy, but when it’s two or three objects it fires less and less (one neurons, two neurons, three neurons) = there are single neurons that code number and fire maximally when the prefer number is shown to the monkey

Answer 207

the neural mechanisms for estimating appear in the intraparietal sulcus across several species, including humans

Answer 208

Counting is more difficult and is learned relatively slowly - most 3-year-olds can count ten objects. - most 6 yr. olds can count to 100 - there are cultural differences in the counting level attained by young children: china's kids can count to higher numbers at earlier ages

Answer 209

Simply reciting a list of numbers while touching objects is not necessarily real counting: even though they can count these huge lists, they don’t really understand what they’re counting For example, duck-duck-goose is like the counting procedure, but it’s based on different principles kids at the age of three count kind of weird because they'll count three objects as 3,1,2 which is odd but correct

Answer 210

1) one-to-one correspondence 2) stable order 3) order irrelevance 4) abstraction 5) cardinality

Answer 211

each number should be labeled by a single number word

Answer 212

the numbers should always be recited in the same order 1,2,3,5,6 and when asked to count they’ll repeat the mistake - it’s like they haven they’re own number language

Answer 213

Objects can be counted left to right, right to left, or in any other order. american kids count left to right even before they start reading

Answer 214

Any set of discrete objects or events can be counted

Answer 215

The number of objects in the set corresponds to the last number stated. if i say 1,2,3,4,5 - 5 tells me the number of objects in the set - kids don’t seem to understand this

Answer 216

Children who can count past 10 are given a pile of objects and asked to give N objects Over 18 months (3 to 4.5 years), skill develops rapidly: - one knowers: if you ask for 5 or 7 or 8 they’ll give you a random pile of chips but if you ask for one, they’ll give you one (3 y.o.) - two knowers - three knowers - cardinality: after the kid is a three knower, they sort of get the concept of cardinality - there aren’t 4 knowers or 5 knowers

Answer 217

Like concepts of people, concepts of number have a uniquely human aspect that is slow to develop (counting) as well as an aspect that is innate and shared with other species (estimating)

Answer 218

Specific brain areas seem to be devoted to the processing of spatial information. - Represent space relative to oneself (Egocentric representation): what’s far for you isn’t far for someone else, what’s one your left, isn’t someone else’s left - Represent space relative to the external environment (Allocentric representation): takes time - the keys are on my left and to the east, but if i turn around they’re still to my east but no longer to my left

Answer 219

as soon as infants can reach, they show they can code spatial location - they prefer to reach for close objects Forming a bigger mental map of the world starts with the self and how things look to you - During the first year, when infants find they can reach an object on the right, they will continue to reach to the right when they are rotated - Once children can move on their own, they begin to form non-egocentric mental maps

Answer 220

took non-crawling kids in a baby walker and after they use the baby walker for a little while you give them the same experiment and they can solve the problem even though they’re crawlers - another one was the parent’s kids would just tote them around and they would fail the test - you have to move yourself to come up with an allocentric repsentation when they don’t yet crawl, when they go to the other side they pick up the cover on the right (where the object isn’t)

Answer 221

1) Landmark-based representations: 12-month-olds (and rats) use landmark locations but not landmark indicators (Hermer & Spelke, 1996) 2)Dead reckoning

Answer 222

rat water maze - looks up to a place on the ceiling to locate the platform - this has a limit, sometimes there are multiple landmarks with the same geometric information - if you put a kid in a rectangular room they know something about where the toy is going to be because there’s a short and long wall and the kids get this so they search in the two corners (get this in the rat) - now if you put a green curtain on one of the walls then you always know that it’s the top left corner vs. the bottom right (the kids can’t use this indicator until they’re 5, it’s not present in 3 y.i.

Answer 223

ability to keep track continuously of one’s location relative to one’s starting point in the absence of landmarks - if you put a human in a boat without a compass, they’ll never get back but some animals can such as ants even adults aren't good at dead reckoning children in some cultures are very good at dead reckoning for mysterious reasons

Answer 224

when interacting with toy objects, children normally realize that the small toys aren't real - but after interacting with large toys, object concepts can interfere with spatial reasoning Ex. after having played at a park, a little girl has committed a scale error by trying to slide down a tiny toy slide and carries out a serious effort to do an impossible task what this suggests is that there are two seperate representations - one is of what the object is and the other is it’s spatial properties - don’t develop at the same rate so you get these scale errors

Answer 225

NUMBER: estimation (core) vs counting (not core) SPACE: egocentric vs allocentric TIME: experienced vs logical CAUSALITY: physical vs non-physical

Answer 226

1) ORDER of events (first, second, third, before, now, after) 2) DURATION of events (2 seconds vs 2 hours) 3) INTERVALS between events (duration of pauses between sounds)

Answer 227

Research shows that 3-month-olds can detect a repetitive sequence of events over time and expect the sequence to continue By 12 months, infants can detect the order of events they have seen only once By the age of 5, children can learn to estimate the duration of periods lasting three to thirty seconds (early temporal coding)

Answer 228

relating to time concept 3 m.o. can detect a repretitve sequence of events over time (R,R,L) and expect the sequence to continue - 4 m.o. can discriminate between ordered and disordered causal events

Answer 229

related to time concept for durations of 5 seconds or less 4 mo olds also accurately discriminate between durations of sound or light (Weber’s Law) - if you have a light on for 3 seconds they can tell it’s less than if it was on for 5 seconds)

Answer 230

beyond about 5 seconds the innate clock is worthless, ability to estimate temporal durations declines markedly in every age though older children typically outperform younger children - estimating how long ago a certain event occured like christmas isn’t well developed until age 9 - train A vs. B problem from Piaget - logical time: children often show a failure to mark logical time until about age 9, children as youg as 5 years old can reason and make logical inferences about time as in predicting that doll that fell asleep last will wake up last

Answer 231

Naive psychology is a common sense understanding of human behavior in terms of mental causes Why did Jack and Jill go up the hill? Common sense: Because they wanted a pail of water and knew a pail of water was at the top of the hill.

Answer 232

Some argue that a mental conception of people is an innate aspect of human psychology (like language) is a uniquely human ability is present in infants before they can understand language is genetically-based

Answer 233

the ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc. — to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own - deficits are present in people with autism By 2 to 3 years old, children typically understand desires But they do not appear to represent others’ beliefs until age 4 (evidence from the false belief task)

Answer 234

to recognize that others can have beliefs about the world that are diverging

Answer 235

Sally and Anne, who have a basket and a box, respectively. Sally also has a marble, which she places in her basket, and then leaves the room. While she is out of the room, Anne takes the marble from the basket and puts it in the box. Sally returns, and the child is then asked where Sally will look for the marble. The child passes the task if she answers that Sally will look in the basket, where she put the marble; the child fails the task if she answers that Sally will look in the box, where the child knows the marble is hidden, even though Sally cannot know this, since she did not see it hidden there. To pass the task, the child must be able to understand that another’s mental representation of the situation is different from their own, and the child must be able to predict behavior based on that understanding most normally developing children are unable to pass the tasks until around age four

Answer 236

experimenters ask children what they believe to be the contents of a box that looks as though it holds a candy called "Smarties". After the child guesses (usually) "Smarties", it is shown that the box in fact contained pencils. The experimenter then re-closes the box and asks the child what she thinks another person, who has not been shown the true contents of the box, will think is inside. The child passes the task if he/she responds that another person will think that there are "Smarties" in the box, but fails the task if she responds that another person will think that the box contains pencils. Gopnik & Astington (1988) found that children pass this test at age four or five years.

Answer 237

1) Picture of apple is taken 2) Apple is replaced by banana 3) Which object is in the picture? normal 4 year olds are more likely to pass the false belief test than autistic children BUT autistic children are more likely to pass the false picture test than normal 4 year olds

Answer 238

False belief and false picture reasoning depends on distinct neural mechanisms - a false belief mechanism that is impaired in autists and young children, but not older children - a false picture mechanism that is spared in autists, young children, and older children

Answer 239

Sabbagh & Taylor (2000) gave normal young children a false picture and a false belief task and examined the areas of the brain that were activated they activate different parts of the brain!

Answer 240

Povinelli and Eddy (1996) wondered whether mental understandings are unique to humans. 1) So they trained 4- to 5-year-old chimps to beg food from only one of two people--the one who had food to give. 2) Then they tested whether they would beg for food only from people who could see them. In each trial,one person could see the chimp, whereas the other either had her back turned, was blindfolded, covered her eyes with her hands, had a bucket on her head, had her eyes closed, or was looking up in the air. 3) Only when the experimenter had her back turned did the chimp quit begging. 4) In contrast, 3-year-olds never gestured to people with buckets on their head.

Answer 241

attention to faces - faces are a rich input about other's mental states - when do infants begin paying attention to faces?

Answer 242

Johnson experiment - Discovered that newborns visually track regular schematic faces for longer than they do a scrambled or blank face this proved that sensitivity to faces is present before infants understand the meaning of different facial expressions - Between 5 and 7 months, infants notice common emotional expressions in faces and voices - By 12 months, they prefer to look at smiling faces vs. fearful or angry faces

Answer 243

right fusiform gyrus Neural mechanisms (in the right fusiform gyrus) underlying face perception and recognition in infants have been found to be similar to those found in adults. Prosopagnosiacs (who can identify inanimate objects but not faces) show damage to brain areas (such as right fusiform gyrus) that are activated by faces in infants

Answer 244

In some ways,NO: Belief-Desire reasoning appears to rely on distinct brain mechanisms that fail to develop fully in autists and non-humans In some ways,YES: Much of what we know about beliefs and desires comes from what we can see in faces, and face processing relies on neural regions that are also used in object recognition

Answer 245

three levels of analysis: 1) as consisting of one thing 2) as consisting of a few things 3) as consisting of many things

Answer 246

intelligence as a single trait: Maybe each of us possess a certain amount of g, or general intelligence, that influences our ability on all intellectual tasks. Support: Overall scores on intelligence tests correlate positively with school grades and achievement test performance and with speed of information processing.

Answer 247

1) crystallized intelligence 2) fluid intelligence Cattle's intelligence

Answer 248

Factual knowledge about the world, word meanings, arithmetic, etc. kids have poor crystalized knowledge but good fluid knowledge

Answer 249

The ability to think on the spot by drawing inferences and understanding relations between concepts not previously encountered. Measured on IQ tests by object assembly, analogies, and identification tasks. decline in fluid intelligence as we age - “terminal drop” your last 30 days of life you just have to be able to detect the patterns in the stimuli (+:++ :: -: -)

Answer 250

- Word fluency - verbal meaning - reasoning - spatial visualization - numbering - rote memory - perceptual speed the more individual abilities that you want to divide intelligence up into, there’s theoretically no stopping (you could have mental abilities on monday vs tuesday vs wednesday etc - but what we gain in the fit of the model we lose in it’s generalizability

Answer 251

Performance on various tests of a single ability tend to be more similar than performance on tests that are dissimilar The seven-primary-ability view is more precise and complex than Cattell’s crystallized/fluid distinction.

Answer 252

``` Others see intelligence as comprising many information processing tasks, such as: - attending - perceiving - encoding - associating etc ```

Answer 253

John Carroll proposed the“three-stratum theory of intelligence,”a hierarchical integration consisting of: 1) g 2) eight generalized abilities 3) many specific processes ex. g --> fluid intelligence --> induction, quantitative reasoning ex. g --> general memory/learning --> memory span, associative memory correlate more highly with themselves than with a process in another kind of intelligence - so like induction and quantitative reasoning correlate more with each other than would induction and memory span

Answer 254

Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children (WISC) is the most widely used instrument for children 6 years and older divided into two sections: 1) verbal:general knowledge and language skills (crystallized intelligence) 2) performance: spatial and perceptual abilities (fluid intelligence)

Answer 255

Intelligence tests like the WISC and the Stanford- Binet provide overall quantitative measures of a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of same age, producing the Intelligence Quotient, or IQ.

Answer 256

IQ computation is based on a normal distribution of scores, a pattern of data in which scores fall symmetrically around a mean value, with most scores falling close to the mean and fewer scores at the high and low ends. the mean is the average of all the scores, it's 100 - normal distribution signifies that most scores are at the mean IQ also has a standard deviation: a measure of the variability of scores within a distribution - 68% must be 1 SD above and below the mean data shows overwhelmingly from the first IQ test that IQ goes up every year, in every single country. The mean will always be 100 but what it takes to get 100 is much greater than what it used to be

Answer 257

Scores are stable from the age of 5 onward - Children’s IQs at 5 have high correlation with their IQs at age 15 Scores, however, do show an average change, up or down a few points - when you leave college your IQ tends to decline to the average of your parent’s IQ Changes in IQ scores over time may be influenced by characteristics of children and their parents other than intelligence, such as interest in learning and academic success.

Answer 258

IQ is a strong predictor of academic, economic, and occupational success people with low IQs are more likely to drop out of high school, be unemployed, be on welfare, commit crime

Answer 259

Correlation between IQ and academic achievement scores is about .85 academic achievement is correlated to income because: 1) indirect effect: SAT score gets you into a better college which then has higher gains than a lower quality score/university - not true because if you go to OU vs OSU even though you had a high score, you still earn a salary as if you had gone to OSU

Answer 260

college adds some to the salary but so does the IQ! IQ does something on top of just college because people in the top 20% that graduated high school make as much as the top 40% of people that went to 2 years of college, etc

Answer 261

1) Association with a broad range of qualities measured at the same time 2) stability over time: if the score you get differs from week to week to week then the parent shouldn’t worry but if it’s very stable then the parent should worry 3) Predictiveness of later outcomes in other areas ex. IQ predicts other things at the same time and future things like income and ACT scores - has all three qualities

Answer 262

- qualities of children (inherited features) | - qualities of the environment (home, school, socioeconomic status)

Answer 263

About 50% of the variation in IQs is attributable to genetic variation Genetic contribution relative to the environmental contribution is greater in older children than in younger children IQs of adopted children increasingly correlate with their biological parents’as the children get older

Answer 264

Turkheimer et al. (2003) calculated heritability for twins who differed in SES Sample median family income $22,000 (in 1997 dollars); 1997 US median $53,000 the more money the family made, the closer to the parents IQ the kid had

Answer 265

- boys and girls have almost the same IQ - there are small differences in average performances between boys and girls in specific areas - pattern of sex differences in academic achievement is similar in many countries

Answer 266

Girls are more fluent in writing, perceptual speed, and verbal fluency Boys as a group are stronger in visual–spatial processing, science, and math problem solving boys and girls have different strengths - boys are better at visual spatial processing, science and math than BOYS are at writing, verbal fluency - it’s not that boys are better than girls unless you assume that on average everyone is the same

Answer 267

Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) is a scale used to measure factors in the home environment that might affect children’s intellectual and environmental well- being scores on HOME correlate with child's IQ, why? - maybe its that the parent's IQ and HOME score effect the child's IQ - maybe it's that the parents IQ effects the child's IQ and the HOME score (if you burn down the library it wouldn’t have an impact on the child’s IQ because it’s only based on the parent’s IQ)

Answer 268

because. ... 1) Home environment is affected by parents’ genes 2) Almost all studies using HOME have focused on biological parents With non-biological parents, scores on HOME have very low correlations with child IQ

Answer 269

- Inadequate diet can disrupt brain development - Reduced access to health service, poor parenting, and insufficient stimulation and emotional support can impair intellectual growth - In all countries studied, children from wealthier homes scored higher on IQ than did children from poor homes - In countries where there is the greatest economic diversity, the diversity in IQ is the greatest

Answer 270

risk factors! - mother didn't complete high school - no father or step father in house - large number of stressful life events - maternal anxiety in effect, poverty has a huge impact on IQ but by no means what so ever - they couldn’t find a particular factor that effected it, it was just by having a combination of all these factors if you look at average IQ of someone with 0 risks, they have a really high IQ that’s above average - but once you get a bunch of risks, your IQ approaches the boarder of mental retardation

Answer 271

1) home-based programs: focus on improving the parenting skills of the mother (based on the idea that the home environment is that matters) 2) center-based programs: Nursery schools with emphasis in teaching reading and arithmetic skills, reinforcement of learning, and providing stimulating environment.

Answer 272

Gains in IQ scores from participation in early intervention programs are short-lived - after a year of tutoring, once the program got discontinued, their IQ returned to what it was before

Answer 273

perceptual categorization

Answer 274

meaning system and words of their language

Answer 275

being able to move toward goals

Answer 276

the perceptual processes whereby individuals can look at a small number of objects and almost instantaneously know how many objects are present

Answer 277

- children acquire language very rapidly and with no need for direct instruction in grammar - virtually all children exposed to language acquire it - there are critical periods of language development - groups of deaf children not exposed to language invent their own sign language, complete with grammar

Answer 278

concrete operations stage

Answer 279

simon looks to his mother when on the edge of a visual cliff and hesitates only when she seems frightened

Answer 280

holophrastic speech --> telegraphic --> three word utterances --> complex sentences

Answer 281

gains in intellectual skills were greater for head start participants than non participants after one year, but no differences were evident after two year

Answer 282

preoperational

Answer 283

their concept of object permanence

Answer 284

children can learn concepts beyond what is considered age appropriate by actively experiencing the concepts

Answer 285

- infants understand the differences between above, below, left of, right of - self locomotion stimulates processing of spatial information - certain parts of the brain are specialized for processing particular types of spatial information

Answer 286

unstandardized IQ scores rise during the school year but during the summer

Answer 287

the ratios required for infants of a given age to discriminate between two stimuli (ex. 4 and 9 dots, 4 and 9 seconds, or 4 and 9 inches) are similar regardless of whether the discrimination involves time, space, or number

Answer 288

subitizing

Answer 289

Emphasize the role of the environment in shaping personality and social behavior. Learning theories attempt to account for social development in terms of 3 basic mechanisms: 1) classical conditioning 2) operant conditioning 3) observational learning

Answer 290

Watson attempted to show that seemingly instinctual feelings are really the result of classical conditioning Little Albert is a baby and Watson gives him a rat and he doesn’t seem particularly bothered by it whenever little albert would reach out to touch the rat, Watson would hit a bong so that it was a loud sound (operant condiitoning actually….awkward) when he gives him the rat he starts to cry - the rat now induces a fear he puts the rat physically on little albert which like duh yeah that’s going to be bothered vs. before when he just put him near him he was plucked out of a hospital for insephalitis….not a normal kid

Answer 291

generalization gradient: the closer the second stimulization is to the first stimuli, the more likely it is to be generalized - when they give little albert a rabbit he also starts to cry

Answer 292

Bandura showed that the environment can elicit behaviors without reinforcers or punishers In observational learning, children learn by observing consequences for a model things that people fear aren’t always things that they’ve always had personal experiences with (like a bee sting) maybe we learn by watching others so maybe we’ve seen someone get stung and it looked like it hurt a lot Bobo doll study: a kid would watch a model would perform aggressive behavior towards a doll and then the kid would do the same after - exposure to aggressive modeling increased appeal to guns even though the guns weren’t modeled - the kids also picked up the novel hostile language that the model was saying - also find new ways of hitting the doll the effect of the aggressive model: the kids who didn’t see the model punch bobo, they would still walk in and punch bobo - the key difference is that what the model did is elicit novel aggressive behavior: those that saw the aggressive model would do new aggressive behavior - what’s being learned from the model isn’t model see-model do, what you learn is that bobo must be destroyed so then what you do is use anything in your disposal to destroy bobo - so that we learn when someone is being vicitimized is that it’s okay to victimize someone

Answer 293

dr. money show convinced the parents to change bruce into a female after the accident a genetic female that was born with a penis and raised as a male, grew up to accept themselves as males and vice versa (nurture over nature) Diamond: (minority view) pregnant rats were injected with testosterone and the female rats were born with male like genetalia - moreover, they also acted like males and attempted to mate like males - needed to prove it could also change a human’s identity when brenda was 6, money published that he had changed a perfectly normal boy into a normal girl, solidified money’s ideas and the practice of doing surgery on young infants with unusual genitalia - proved that nurture/socialization overrode nature - when you’re born you’re a blank slate (gender neutrality at birth) - provided surgeons with more confidence in sex changes Gorsky tried to see if testosterone actually changed the structure of the brain - first he had to see if there were physically any differences in male vs. female brains, but he didn’t find anything BUT then his student found something in the hypothalamus that was twice as big in the male as the female which showed a sex difference in a male vs. female brain - next Gorsky wanted to see what caused this difference, was it testosterone? so they injected a pregnant rat with testosterone = same effects as the earlier experience with Diamond - then he examined the girls brain and infact the SDN of the females now had the SDN of a male - what this meant was that in rats the female vs. male brains were physically different at birth - doesn’t mean this is the same for humans but…..it’s a start Brenda started having problems adjusting to being a girl - Diamond wanted to find out what was going on - turns out Brenda was living as a boy again named David and is now married - he killed himself…. suab’s work with transexual brains showed that transgender males have a part of their brain in the hypothalamus that’s similar to the female brains

Answer 294

girls spend more time with their mothers, look at their mothers more, etc they looked at babies and the kids were given a toy that they had to cross the room to get and then they put up a gate - the kids wanted to get to the other side where a toy was - behaved how boys and girls acted when they encountered this gate - girls spend much more time crying while boys spend more time against the edge in an ill fated way to squeeze their way through the gate which doesn’t work and they get angrier and angrier

Answer 295

regardless of if you’re a kid at the 95 percentile or at the 5th for reading or math…there’s a consistent pattern = boys showed an advantage for math while girls showed an advantage for reading - you also see that at the highest ability for the ability in math, the sex difference as large, but for reading, the sex differences are low - it’s like there’s a trade off girls are better at reading than boys in all other countries - inversely correlated for the difference for boys

Answer 296

boys body’s and brains seem to be built for aggression, hunting, thing that involve navigation, things that involve warding off competitors - whereas women are built for affiliation and association girls are nicer than boys

Answer 297

Maybe boys and girls differ merely because adults treat them differently? Evidence that adults do treat boys and girls differently: Rubin et al. (1974) asked mothers and fathers to describe their newborn babies: girls are soft, delicate, little whereas boys are hard, strong, well coordinated....lol yeah right adult socialization doesn't apparently have an effect...

Answer 298

Children themselves actively promote sex differences, either by putting pressure on one another or by putting pressure on themselves girls and boys interracting in a schoolyard - boys and girls exclude each other - also there’s a radius around the teacher and boys usually roam around but girls are close

Answer 299

boys and girls were both given dolls and trucks - they would also go into books and make sure there were equal numbers of boys/girls portrayed as doctors, fireman, etc - provided equal opportunity to wear skirts, barrets and everything else = created a perfectly gender neutral —> their kid Jeremy wants to wear barrettes to school Jeremy went to preschool one day wearing barrettes “several times that day, another litttle boy insisted that Jeremy must be a girl because ‘only girls wear barrettes.’ After repeatedly asserting that “wearing barrettes doesn’t matter; being a boy means having a penis and testicles,” Jeremy finally pulled down his pants as a way of making his point more convincingly. The other boy was not impressed. He simply said, “Everybody has a penis; only girls wear barrettes.”

Answer 300

the theory goes like this: you have a person with a certain chromosomal identity which will in part play a roll in a person’s gender identity - this gender identity shapes the way you look at the world - this kind of theory explains how completely arbitrary things like barettes can be associated with gender even though they have nothing to due with gender that’s affiliated with aggression/affiliation - explains how girls are attracted to dolls even though dolls themselves don’t have anything to do with affiliation - girls will remember details about dolls better than boys and boys will remember more about trucks than girls do - gender identity of child is affected by biology

Answer 301

CAH - disorder where you have a large amount of testosterone en-utero: if you look at biological females with CAH that their childhood play becomes 70% masculinized and it also has an impact on their gender identity: so they think of themselves as men rather than women - they’re also more likely to develope a homosexual orientation - also has an impact on spatial abilities - what this suggests is that testosterone impacts gender identity

Answer 302

Learning Theories maintain that emotions are learned responses to the environment Evolutionary Theory maintains that emotions are innate mechanisms for responding to our understanding of the environment.

Answer 303

Cultural anthropologist who claimed that facial expressions bear no necessary relation to emotions, but are determined by cultural learning her evidence was the natives of Samoas could smile when they were sad or frown when they were happy - had no emotion at all of shame sidebar: newborns can imitate some facial expressions!

Answer 304

began to look at the connection between the facial expressions we show and the muscles we use to express them by applying an electrode to certain muscles - the guy on the right isn’t afraid it’s just that the electrodes are placed on certain muscles

Answer 305

Expressions are evolved and naturally selected from from ancestral species (monkeys can smile too) expression of emotion is an adaptive function

Answer 306

innate! Eckman and Friesen (1971) showed that even 'isolated‘ humans could easily distinguish facial expressions typical of certain emotional states --> went to a tribe and asked them how they’re feel if their kid died, or if they smelled a dying pig etc and they showed all the same facial expressions Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1973) found that blind and deaf children automatically use the same facial muscles to display the same kinds of emotions as non-blind and deaf children this suggests that the machinery for the emotions that we have are innate and are shaped by natural significance because of their function

Answer 307

Social smiles emerge at 6–7 weeks. Smiling at familiar people occurs at about 7 months. Babies of 3–4 months laugh when tickled or being swung or played with. Generalized distress is the first emotion to emerge. Indications of anger and sadness emerge at about 2 months. Fear reactions are seen during the first months of life and become more specific during the first year.

Answer 308

Separation anxiety: distress due to separation from primary caregiver Begins to steadily increase around 8 months Emerges with“stranger wariness”and smiling at familiar faces why might you get these happening all at the same time? before 8 months, when mom is out of sight she’s out of mind, but at 8 months object permanence develops and the baby is very aware that mom is gone and wants her back

Answer 309

Embarrassment, pride, guilt, and shame emerge during the second year of life. At 15–24 months children show embarrassment when they are made the center of attention. Pride is seen by the age of 3, when children are pleased with having achieved something. Parenting and culture affect when children feel pride, shame, and guilt

Answer 310

1) cognitions (for example, thoughts about desires or about how to interpret situations) - changing what you think about the situation 2) Emotion-related behavior (for example, facial expressions of feelings or aggression due to anger) - change how you act in the situation 3) Emotion-related physiological processes (for example, heart rate - take a deep breath)

Answer 311

``` Self-control in 4- to 5-year-old children is highly correlated with adult competence: Ability to concentrate Verbal fluency General competence Foresight High Credit Scores (!) ``` vs. Gets rattled/immaturity under stress Low self-esteem Slow to make social contacts M&M test: girl does a good job, holds her fists and waits marshmellow test: he gives the kid a marshmellow and the kid has to sit in the room a while in the room and if they wait the kid will also get a second a marshmellow - Michelle followed up with these kids and found theses results

Answer 312

By 6 months, infants begin to“self-soothe,”distracting themselves through shifting their gaze or stroking objects or clothing After 18 months, children use talk to regulate expression of emotions.

Answer 313

Young children use behavioral strategies to regulate emotions • E.g.:kicking, handwaving, looking away Older children use cognitive strategies to distract E.g., thinking about goals or focusing on positive aspects of a situation to downplay teasing

Answer 314

hypothesis: parents could socialize their children’s emotional development through: - Their expression of emotion with their children and other people - Their reactions to their children’s expression of emotion - Their discussions with their children about emotion and the regulation of emotion ``` observations: parents who express positive emotions are likely to have children who are • socially competent, • low in aggression, • well-adjusted • have high self-esteem ``` Parents who express negativity are likely to have children with behavioral problems and social and learning difficulties this is a correlational study so there’s other ways to interpret this evidence - if you have happy kids then maybe it’s easy to be positive with them (reversal of causation) - another way is that maybe it’s genetic and kids are inheriting their parent’s genes and if the parents are happy then so will their kids!

Answer 315

By 4–7 months, infants can distinguish emotions in others Best at happiness and surprise. Also recognize sadness in others

Answer 316

Darwin says emotions are antithesis of each other: joy is the antithesis of sadness

Answer 317

At about age 3, children can mask their own emotion of disappointment but not yet recognize false expressions in others By age 5, the ability to distinguish true from false expressions develops to include understanding that the facial expressions of others may be misleading.

Answer 318

Informal norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions, and when emotions should be suppressed or masked. During preschool and elementary school years, children advance in understanding of display rules. They learn both prosocial and self-protective motives for false expressions.

Answer 319

Between the ages of 5 and 7, children come to realize that they can simultaneously feel two compatible emotions about different events (for example, feeling both happy and excited). By mid- to late childhood, children realize that they and others can experience positive and negative emotions related to the same source (for example, happy to receive a gift and sad that it was not what they wanted).

Answer 320

children can understand emotional ambivalence, recognizing that people can have mixed feelings.

Answer 321

Personality refers to a person’s general manner of interacting with the world, especially with other people. you’re talking about their general manner - not how they’re like on tuesday, or in class, or at a party surface(tardy) vs. central traits(undirected)

Answer 322

central: agressive surface: argumentative, compétitive, pugnacious specific: argues often with roommate, write scathing letters to newspaper editor people that are like one thing in a row, tend to be like the other things in the row as well = cluster analysis (like intelligence)

Answer 323

Costa & McCrae (1994) found that even when personality tests are administered 30 to 40 years apart, they still correlate between +.50 and +.70. good test-retest reliability

Answer 324

That is, people behave similarly across many different situations. Even when situation differences in behavior are large (for example, how you act in a bar vs. Thanksgiving dinner), personality differences are just as large. Even when situation differences in behavior are large (for example, how you act in a bar vs. Thanksgiving dinner), personality differences are just as large.in independent* differences are stable - you won’t act the same at a bar as at thanksgiving - buttttt at the bar the most energetic who’s dancing at on the tables will talk the most at thanksgiving - absolutely behavior might differ but overall they’re the same

Answer 325

productiveness, romance, health, finding criminals health: looked at people that were most likely to have a heart attack and found that there were a set of personality traits (Type A) that were highly likely to have a heart attack - the other type of traits (Type B) is much less likely to have a heart attack - second heart attacks: Type A were less likely to have a second heart attack than type B because then they become vigilant about relaxing and eating healthy etc

Answer 326

OCEAN ``` openness vs nonopenness Conscientiousness-undirectedness Extroversion-introversion Agreeableness-antagonism Neuroticism-stability ```

Answer 327

1) genes: heritability ranges from .3 to .5 so 30%-50% of personality can be explained by inherited genes - what this means is you’re born with a temperament

Answer 328

Individualdifferencesinemotional reactivity that are seen shortly after birth. Temperament is biologically based: Neural and hormonal factors affect responsiveness to the environment

Answer 329

Easy babies: • 40% of infants; • adjust easily to new situations, • quickly establish routines,generally cheerful,easy to calm Difficult babies: • 10% of infants; • slow to adjust to new experiences, • likely to react negatively and intensely to stimuli and events Slow-to-warm-up Babies • 15% of babies • somewhat difficult originally but get better temperment tests in babies and would follow up the same subject 10 years later to see how they’ll react - so an easy baby 10 years later the kid will talk a ton - if you take a difficult baby 10 years later and pretend to fix something they won’t talk to you at all

Answer 330

By 18–20 months, children can recognize their self- image in a mirror. we know this because we put rouge on their cheeck and on the other you just brush their face - if the baby knows it’s them then they try to wipe it off By age 2, children use language (“me,”“I”) to refer to self and assert their will against the will of their parents. By age 3, children may exhibit shame and embarrassment, signifying concerns about how others view them.

Answer 331

Preschoolers’self-evaluations tend to be unrealistically positive Base judgments only on prior successes Ignore base-rate information ask a 5 year old how good they are at throwing a bean bag into a basket and most say they are great at it - so they start with the basket close and then it gets farther and farther away - the kids rely on how many times they hit the basket, they don’t take into consideration how many times they miss it or if someone else is doing better than them --> they don’t think about the fact that anybody should be able to hit the basket that’s 2 inches away

Answer 332

By ages 3–4, children understand self in terms of Concrete characteristics: “I have blue eyes,”“I run fast,” (adults would say they’re smart or kind) Concrete preferences: “I love my dog” (adult would say i love animals/pet - child uses less abstract language to describe themselves) General Context-Specific characteristics:“I’m strong” when lifting a chair (they’re tied to a specific context - not in general) children don’t have a general understanding of themselves - the other idea is that they do have a concrete understanding but they just don’t have the language to explain it

Answer 333

kids search for parent approval at 2 so turns out academic achievement affects self esteem, so tutoring is better than self esteem mentoring give kids math problems: some she praised for“being smart”and others she praised for“working hard.” Students praised for their smarts - worried more about their failure - chose easier problems - displayed less enthusiasm - gave up more quickly b/c each question was a mini intelligence test vs. kids who were praised for working hard kids whose parents thought their kids knew about things that didn’t even exist, they didn’t have high self esteem, they had narcism!

Midterm 2 Flashcards

(362 cards)