Midterm Flashcards
(185 cards)
1
Q
what year did Canada establish its first centre for nursing research? where was it?
A
1971
McGill University
2
Q
define research
A
systematic, rigorous, logical investigation that aims to answer questions about nursing phenomena
3
Q
define phemonena
A
circumstances, occurrences, or facts that are perceptible to the senses
4
Q
list significance of research to practice (4)
A
- EXPANDS discipline’s unique body of knowledge
- FOUNDATION for EIP
- Allows practice to change with work environments and common health issues
- Maintains PROFESSIONAL societal RELEVANCE
5
Q
define evidence-informed nursing
A
incorporation of evidence from research PLUS clinical expertise, client preference, and other resources to make decisions
6
Q
list the main trends in research
A
- community based care
- reducing disparities in health care
- health promotion and risk reduction
- complex client care (increasing severity of illnesses)
- chronic illness
- ageing population
- quality, cost, and accountability
- technology in health care
7
Q
when was the first Canadian nursing journal established?
A
1969
8
Q
what is the purpose of replication of nursing research (2)
A
- provides depth
- promotes generalizability to nursing practice
9
Q
list the Canadian research priorities (3)
A
- nursing practice (populations, interventions, context)
- outcomes
- research-practice link
10
Q
what are the requirements to become a consumer of research (3)
A
- knowledge of subject matter being researched
- ability to DISCRIMINATE and EVALUATE information
- LOGICALLY ability to APPLY KNOWLEDGE
11
Q
what are the roles of ALL nurses in research
A
- intelligent consumer of research
- awareness of ethics in research
12
Q
bachelor level nurses can participate in research how?
A
- develop research questions from clinical problems
- share findings from articles with peers (journal club)
- participate in research teams
13
Q
masters level nurses can participate in research how?
A
- conduct research
- collaborate on proposal development, data collection/analysis, and interpretation
14
Q
doctoral level nurses can participate in research how?
A
- conduct research
- develop theory and methods
15
Q
define generalizability
A
ability of research findings to be generalized to the population
16
Q
define knowledge gaps
A
absence of theoretical or scientific knowledge r/t the phenomenon of interest
17
Q
what are the different ways of knowing (4) and which apply best to QT research? QL research?
A
empirics, aesthetics, ethical, personal
- QL –> aesthetics
- QT –> empirics
18
Q
define paradigm
A
a set of beliefs and practices shared by communities of researchers, that guide the research process
19
Q
list the 3 main paradigms in nursing research
A
- post-positivism
- constructivism
- critical social theory
20
Q
how do the 3 nursing paradigms differ r/t ontology (reality), epistemology (truth/knowledge), and methodology
A
- post positivism: 1 reality, 1 truth (OBJECTIVITY is goal) and QT methods
- constructivism: multiple realities and truths –> goal to understand MEANING, QL methods
- critical socialist: reality constructed by people in power, truth is subjective/influenced by context, and uses QL and QT methods –> goal is EMANCIPATION
21
Q
define context
A
personal, social, political environment in which phenomenon occurs
22
Q
name the steps in knowledge development (5)
A
gaps–> generation –> distribution –> adaptation –> review and revision –> back to gaps
23
Q
objectivity, deduction, 1 truth, validation and replication are characteristics of ________ view of science
A
RECEIVED
24
Q
subjectivity, multiple truths, induction, trends and patterns are characteristics of ______ view of science
A
PERCEIVED
25
in QL research design, data are \_\_\_\_\_\_, reality is viewed from the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_'s perspective, data collection and analysis occur \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and usually ____ # of participants
* words
* participant
* simultaneously
* small
26
in QT research design, data are \_\_\_\_\_\_, reality is viewed from \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_'s perspective, data collection typically occurs ________ data analysis, and usually ______ # of participants
* numbers
* researcher
* before
* large
27
list the aims of inquiry for the 3 nursing paradigms
* post-positivist: CONTROL, PREDICT, EXPLAIN
* constructivist: UNDERSTANDING, reconstruct the truth
* critical social theory: critique, change, reconstruct the truth, EMANCIPATION
28
list general steps of QL research process (7)
1. RQ
2. select group who have experienced phenomenon of interest
3. interviews
4. analyze data for RECURRING THEMES
* (lit review)
5. conduct more interviews until SATURATION of themes (no new themes)
6. lit review
7. summarize findings to describe the human experience
29
list general steps of QT research process (6)
1. research question
2. lit review
3. identify framework
4. decide on study design (most rigorous)
5. select sample and measure concept of interest
6. analyze data and report whether hypothesis true/false
30
what is meant by mixed methods research
* researchers design and implement a study
* analysis of data using BOTH QT and QL methods
31
what is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning
* inductive: start with details of experience and move to a general picture
* deductive: start with general picture and move to a specific direction (uses 2+ concepts)
32
what is a variable (2 properties)
something that is being studied
something that changes or varies
33
list in order of most to least abstract: theory, framework, variable, worldview, concept
* worldview
* framework
* theory
* concept
* variable
34
define concept
image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea
35
define theory
set of interrelated concepts that explain or predict phenomena
36
define hypothesis
tentative statement of the RELATIONSHIP between 2 or more variables that can be empirically TESTED and suggests an answer to the RQ i.e. a PREDICTION of what will happen in the study
37
what is the difference between conceptual and theoretical frameworks
theoretical based on existing theory vs. conceptual is multiple concepts put together to explain results of a study
38
conceptual or theoretical framework is used more in QT studies? QL studies?
QT: theoretical
QL: conceptual
39
what is the function of a framework (4)
* clarifies CONCEPTS
* identifies/states underlying ASSUMPTIONS
* specifies RELATIONSHIPS between concepts
* MAP of concepts in the framework
40
the purpose of QT research is to _________ a phenomenon
SYSTEMATICALLY DESCRIBE
41
the purpose of QL research is to answer research questions related to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
MEANING OF EXPERIENCE
42
what is the difference between conceptual and operational definitions
* conceptual is how the researcher chooses to define the concept (based on literature) e.g. ambulatory = ability to walk
* operational is how the concept is measured in the research study (instruments) e.g. ambulatory = able to walk 4 steps without assistance
43
describe the link between research and practice
clinical problems become research questions --\> research to find answers to the questions --\> findings from research will then influence practice
44
what is the purpose of a literature review (for a researcher)
* to discover what is KNOWN (vs. unknown) about a topic
* GAPS in knowledge
* discover UNANSWERED QUESTIONS
* discover FRAMEWORKS used to study the problem
* generate RESEARCH QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESES
* helps to narrow DESIGN AND METHODS
* helps to determine need for REPLICATION
45
what is the purpose of a literature review (for a consumer)
* known vs. unknown
* gaps
* traditions
* strengths and weaknesses of an area
* developing EIP
* uncovers a new practice that can be used, further tested, or revised
46
what is the purpose of a lit review in QT research
* develop conceptual/theoretical FRAMEWORK: primary and secondary sources
* refines the PROBLEM STATEMENT and HYPOTHESIS
* outlines METHODOLOGY: design, sample, instruments, procedure
* outlines OUTCOME and ANALYSIS
47
what is the purpose of a lit review in QL research
depends on the research study design
* phenomenological - to compare study findings with the literature and to enhance knowledge of the phenomena of study
* grounded theory - comparison of study findings with the literature
* ethnographic - literature concepts provide a framework for the study
* historical - literature is the data source
48
which of the following are TRUE about literature reviews: A) it is a systematic summary and critical evaluation of literature on a topic
B) includes 1 or more resources
C) is a synthesis of the literature
D) is typically the largest section of a paper in order to present all positive and negative findings of an area
A and C
B is False: should have an adequate number of resources to represent a broad spectrum of the literature
D is False: must be SUCCINCT
49
T/F: a systematic review and literature review are the same thing
FALSE systematic review is a type of literature review that uses RIGOROUS methods to identify, critically appraise, and synthesize PRIMARY studies
provide the best available objective evidence on a topic
50
empirical or scientific, studies in journals, and research literature are all types of ______ literature
data-based
51
reports of theories, reviews, and how-to articles are known as _____________ literature
conceptual
52
what is the difference between primary and secondary sources
primary: data-based, theory, research (original work)
secondary: summary of material, critique, analysis of a theory, topic, practice (written by someone other than original author)
53
what are the 3 characteristics of refereed journals
1. peer-reviewed
2. blind reviewed by external reviewer(s)
3. judged using a set of criteria
54
what are the components of a well-articulated clinical question
PICOT
population
intervention
comparison intervention
outcome
timing
55
what are the steps of the research process \*\*\*KNOW THIS\*\*\* p. 50, table 3-2
1. research problem
2. purpose
3. literature review
4. theoretical and/or conceptual framework
5. hypothesis/research questions
6. research design
7. sample: type and size
8. legal-ethical issues
9. instruments (measurement tools)
10. validity and reliability
11. data collection procedure
12. data analysis
13. results
14. discussion of findings and new findings
15. implications, limitations, and recommendations
16. references
17. communicating research results
56
how do you critically read a report
\*\*\* KNOW THIS \*\*\*
see page 51, box 3-1 in the textbook:
1) identify the steps of the research process and how the study was conducted
2) clarify unfamiliar concepts or terms (using a textbook or dictionary)
3) question assumptions and rationale
4) assess the study for validity
57
name the types of research at each level in the hierarchy of evidence
level 1: systematic review or meta-analysis of RCT and evidence-informed clinical practice guidelines based on systematic reviews
level 2: RCT
level 3: controlled trial without randomization i.e. quasiexperimental
level 4: non-experimental study
level 5: systematic review of qualitative studies
level 6: single descriptive/qualitative study
level 7: opinions or authorities and/or reports of expert committees
58
what is IMRAD and what does it stand for
introduction, methods, results, and discussion
* the general sections of a research report
59
define critical thinking
RATIONAL EXAMINATION of ideas, inferences, assumptions, principles, arguments, conclusions, issues, beliefs, statements, and actions
60
what are the steps/stages of the critical reading process (PCAS)
* preliminary understanding: skim the abstract and article
* comprehensive understanding: understand author's intent, review terms, understand terms in relation to context
* analysis understanding: understanding parts and critique soundness
* synthesis: put together and make sense
61
define research question (RQ)
concise, interrogative statement written in the present tense and including one or more variables/concepts
62
how are RQ and hypothesis related to the research process
* RQ presents the idea to be examined in the research study, therefore guides study design and other components of the hypothesis
* hypothesis is a prediction/guess of the results of the study and is used in TESTING for validity of the study
63
what are the 3 characteristics of a fully developed RQ (for a QT study)
1. VARIABLES are clearly identified
2. POPULATION is specified
3. TESTABLE relationship between variables
64
define variable
an ATTRIBUTE or PROPERTY in which something (people, events, objects) varies
65
what is the difference between independent and dependent variables
* independent variable: MANIPULATED or observed by the researcher and presumed to effect the dependent variable e.g. years of smoking
* dependent variable: presumed CONSEQUENCE or EFFECT in relation to changes in the independent variable e.g. risk for lung cancer increases with years of smoking
66
define population
a well-defined set that has certain properties
67
what is meant by testability
measurable by QT methods
68
define purpose (as related to research study)
aims or objectives that the investigator hopes to achieve with the research
69
T/F: purpose/aim/objective of a research study will suggest the level of evidence to be obtained from the study's findings
True (p. 75) If the aim states "to see the effect of smoking on risk of lung cancer," the study will be attempting to show cause and effect relationship, which is a RCT, level 2 evidence
If the aim states "to understand the meaning of smoking to people with COPD" the study will be qualitative, level 6 evidence
70
what are the types of hypotheses (4)
* associative vs. causal
* directional vs. non-directional
* simple vs. complex (more than 1 x or y variable)
* research vs. statistical (null)
71
what are the 2 characteristics of a research hypothesis
1. relationship statement: how the variables are related
2. testability
72
what is a statistical/null hypothesis and what is its purpose
* states that there is NO RELATIONSHIP between independent and dependent variables
* used for statistical analysis/testing in QT studies
73
Greater than, less than, positively, and negatively related indicate the research hypothesis is: directional or non-directional?
directional
74
the hypothesis that states there is NO relationship between x and y variables is called: research hypothesis or statistical hypothesis?
statistical hypothesis
75
the statement about the expected relationship between variables of a study is also known as: research hypothesis or research question?
research hypothesis
76
testing the validity of a research study is done using this: statistical hypothesis or research question?
statistical hypothesis
77
what are the 6 parts in the framework for critiquing an article (according to Heather, week 3)
you need a "SISTEM" to critique an article:
1) **S**ubstantive: contribution to nursing
2) **I**nterpretive: reasonable conclusions and interpretation of findings
3) **S**tylistic: succinct, use of headings, writing style...
4) **T**heoretical: are the underpinnings sound? ie. paradigms, study design, level of evidence e.g. quasi-experimental study cannot claim cause-effect relationships
5) **E**thical: REB approval
6) **M**ethodologic: match study design
78
what are the 3 key elements of clinical questions (according to ch. 4 ppt)
1. situation (patient, patient population)
2. intervention
3. outcome (effect of treatment/intervention): does it make a difference?
79
what are the basic ethical principles relevant to research involving humans and briefly define each
* respect for persons - participants have right to self-determination (autonomous agents) therefore participation is voluntary
* beneficence - obligation to do no harm/maximize benefits
* justice - subjects should be treated fairly
80
what are the 3 organizations who regulate ethical conduct on research involving humans
NSERC
CIHR
SSHRC
81
what are the 5 human rights outlined by the CNA related to ethical research
1. self-determination (autonomy)
2. PRIVACY and dignity
3. anonymity and CONFIDENTIALITY
4. fair treatment (justice)
5. protection from discomfort and harm (non-maleficence)
82
what are the elements of informed consent
p. 122, box 6-3
1. involves RESEARCH
2. PURPOSE of research
3. PROCEDURES
4. foreseeable RISKS
5. foreseeable BENEFITS
6. ALTERNATIVE procedures
7. ANONYMITY and CONFIDENTIALITY
8. available TREATMENT for injury
9. CONTACT person for questions about research and/or injuries
10. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
83
define informed consent
legal principle that requires a researcher to inform individuals about the potential benefits and risks of a study before the individuals can participate voluntarily
84
what is the REB's role in research
review research projects and assess that ethical standards are met in relation to the protection of the rights of human subjects
85
what is the difference between consent and assent
* consent: agreement to participate in a study
* assent : aspect of informed consent that protects the rights of children as research subjects but is NOT a substitute for consent
86
what are the 3 components of assent
1. basic understand by the child of what he/she will be expected to do and what will be done to him/her
2. comprehension by the child of the purpose of the research
3. ability of the child to express a preference regarding participation
87
what is the difference between internal validity and external validity
* internal validity is the extent to which the independent variable caused or resulted in the change in the dependent variable (not something else)
* external validity questions the conditions under which the findings can be GENERALIZED
88
list the different types of threats to internal validity
* history
* selection
* maturation
* testing
* mortality
* instrumentation
89
list the different types of threats to external validity
* selection
* reactive
* measurement
90
what is the purpose of research design
* aids in SOLUTION of RQ's: design, methods, and analysis
* allows researcher to apply/maintain different levels of CONTROL
91
what are the elements of research design
* participants (who)
* observations (what)
* measurement of time (when)
* selection of subjects (where)
* role of investigator
92
define control (as it relates to research design)
measures/strategies that the researcher uses to hold the CONDITIONS of the study uniform/CONSTANT and avoid possible bias (distortion of results) on the dependent variable
93
what are the ways that researchers can affect control in a research study
1. HOMOGENEOUS SAMPLE - participants are similar re: extraneous variables, so that the differences in y can be attributed to differences in x.
2. CONSTANCY in DATA COLLECTION - each participant is exposed to the same environmental conditions
3. MANIPULATION OF X - use of experimental and control groups and blinding of participants and/or researchers
4. RANDOMIZATION - sampling procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to the control or experimental group
94
the availability of information on the internet may explain the increase in knowledge among teenagers, not an experimental course offered in high school. this is an example of a ____________ threat to internal validity
history
* you cannot determine if the teenagers increased knowledge from the course or just learned the information from the internet
95
researchers studying the effect of growth hormone supplements on height among boys between the ages of 14-19 will run into ____________ threat to internal validity
maturation
* you cannot tell if the growth hormone caused the increased height, or if it was a result of natural growing process
96
when a group of pregnant women are tested for memory before and after an intervention, there may be a __________ threat to internal validity
testing effect
* the women may do better on the test just because they have already been exposed to the questions, not because their memory improved
97
people whose weight are measured on different scales before and after an intervention will have a _____________ threat to internal validity
instrumentation
* the 1st scale may measure "less" and the 2nd scale may measure "more" so differences may not be a result of the intervention
98
when people drop out of a study, the results may be skewed due to _____________ threat to internal validity
mortality
99
when recruitment for study participants is on a voluntary basis, there may be a ___________ threat to internal validity
selection bias
100
when the results of a treatment only apply to male African-American professional athletes under age 25, there is a ____________ threat to external validity
selection effect
* the results are too specific/narrow to be generalized to other populations
101
when participants change their behavior in response to being studied, there is a ____________ threat to external validity
reactive effect also known as Hawthorne effect
102
pre-post testing affects _______ threat to EXTERNAL validity
measurement effects
* pretesting may influence the results of an intervention and therefore cannot be generalized to the population
103
which threats to internal validity are related to SELECTION threats to external validity
1. selection bias
2. mortality
3. maturation
104
which threats to internal validity are related to MEASUREMENT threats to external validity
1. maturation
2. instrumentation
3. testing
105
which threats to internal validity are related to REACTIVE threats to external validity
1. testing
2. history
106
what is the purpose of randomization
enables research findings to be generalized to the general population (of study)
107
what is randomization
participants have equal chance of being assigned to the control or experimental group
108
what is the difference between random SAMPLING and random ASSIGNMENT
* random sampling: people for the sample are randomly assigned. e.g. if your population is Chinese people over 60 years old who have type II diabetes, then you would randomly pick people from that population to make your sample.
* random assignment: people are randomly assigned to the control and experimental groups e.g. from those people in the sample, the people who get experimental treatment or control treatment are randomly assigned
* random assignment helps control INTERNAL validity
* random sampling helps control generalizability of findings i.e EXTERNAL validity
109
list the 3 types of experimental design
1. true experimental design (RCT)
2. Solomon four-group design
3. after-only design
110
what are the 3 key features experimental designs? what is the significance?
* RANDOMIZATION, CONTROL, MANIPULATION
* experimental design can claim cause and effect relationship
111
what is the key difference between experimental and quasi-experimental design
no RANDOMIZATION in quasi-experimental design
112
what are the 4 types of quasi-experimental design
1. nonequivalent control group design
2. after-only nonequivalent control group design
3. one-group (pretest-posttest) design
4. time series design
113
what are the advantages of experimental design
* cause and effect relationships
* highest level of evidence for a single study (II)
114
what are the disadvantages of experimental design
* subject mortality
* difficult to implement in field settings
* reactivity/Hawthorne effect
115
what are the advantages of quasi-experimental design
* more practical/feasible in practice settings
* suitable when not able to randomize
* some generalizability
116
what is the main disadvantage of quasi-experimental design
difficult to make clear cause and effect statements
117
what is the purpose of evaluation research
to determine the outcome of a program using both experimental and quasi-experimental design
118
what is an extraneous variable
something other than manipulation of the independent variable that may have contributed to change in the dependent variable
119
what is the purpose of non-experimental designs
* used to construct a picture of a phenomenon at a point in time or over a period of time
* explore phenomena as they naturally occur
* explore relationships or differences among variables
120
what are the characteristics of descriptive, exploratory and comparative designs
these are all types of SURVEY studies
* variables include opinions, attitudes, facts
* detailed descriptions of existing variables are collected and used to justify and assess current conditions and practices to make plans for improvement of conditions
121
what are the characteristics of relationship and difference designs
* CORRELATIONAL: researcher examines relationships between 2 or more variables (covariance, not causation)
* DEVELOPMENTAL: cross-sectional (examine data at one time) or longitudinal (same group at different times) or retrospective (link current event to past event) e.g. retrospective data on CAUTI where patients who have in-dwelling catheter longer than 10 days have higher chance of getting infection than those who have catheter removed in less than 1 week
122
what are the differences between relational and causal inferences
* relational: variables are related but not causative
* causal: independent variable causes dependent variable
123
when would you use a non-experimental vs. experimental design
when it is unethical or not feasible to do an experimental study e.g. cannot test the effect of illegal drugs on birth defects by giving drugs to an experimental group and compare outcomes with a control group --\> therefore, must do non-experimental design
124
what would you consider when deciding whether to use cross-sectional or longitudinal design
cross-sectional is less time-consuming (less expensive) than longitudinal and no maturation threat for internal validity BUT longitudinal studies have increased depth of responses and trends in data can be analyzed
125
how would you decide whether to use retrospective/ex post facto design
researchers use this design when the dependent variable has already been affected by the independent variable and experimental designs cannot be employed e.g. studies of the effect of 9-11 on nurses' attitudes toward patients of Middle Eastern descent would use ex-post facto design
126
what are the 2 broad classes of non-experimental designs
1. SURVEY studies
2. RELATIONSHIP/DIFFERENCE studies
127
what is the difference between experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs
* quasi-experimental - NO RANDOMIZATION
* non-experimental - NO MANIPULATION or RANDOMIZATION of independent variable
128
T/F: meta-analysis is the same as a systematic review
FALSE: meta-analysis is a statistical technique, not a research design
129
what is a secondary analysis
researcher analyzes data from a study for a completely different purpose e.g. the original study may be to determine the factors that contribute to burnout among nurses in a bachelor degree program; a secondary study of this may use the data from that study to determine whether there is a link between ethnic background and GPA.
130
what does an epidemiological study examine
factors affecting the health and illness of populations in relation to their environment
* usually focused on prevalence or incidence rates
131
define sampling
process of selecting REPRESENTATIVE units of a population for a research study
132
what is the purpose of sampling
studying an entire population is not feasible or necessary
133
define sample
a set of elements that make up the population
134
what is the main criterion for evaluating a sample
REPRESENTATIVENESS i.e. does the sample have key characteristics that closely approximate those of the population e.g. if studying culture as an element, a representative sample in Richmond would have a higher percentage of Chinese people than a sample from Abbotsford
135
what is the difference between a heterogeneous and homogeneous sample
* heterogeneous sample: members of sample group have dissimilarities e.g. elderly males (different ethnicity, education, marital status, health practices, etc.)
* homogeneous sample: members of the sample group have limited variation in characteristics e.g. males over the age of 85, of German descent and exercise at least 1 hour per day
136
what is the difference between non-probability and probability sampling
NO RANDOMIZATION in non-probability sampling
137
what is an element (in relation to sampling)
the most basic unit about which information is collected
138
list the 5 methods of NON-PROBABILITY sampling
(only need to know the 1st 2 for midterm)
1. convenience sampling
2. quota sampling
3. purposive sampling
4. matching
5. network or snowball effect sampling
139
list the 4 methods of PROBABILITY sampling
1. simple random
2. stratified random
3. multi-stage (cluster)
4. systematic
140
what factors influence sample size (7)
1. type of RESEARCH DESIGN
2. type of SAMPLING PROCEDURE
3. type of FORMULA used for estimating optimum sample size
4. degree of PRECISION required
5. HETEROGENEITY of the attributes under investigation
6. relative FREQUENCY of OCCURRENCE of the phenomenon or interest in the population (e.g. common vs. rare disease)
7. projected COST of using a particular sampling strategy
141
what is the least biased sampling design and why?
simple random - because RANDOMIZATION eliminates bias
142
what is the most biased sampling design and why?
convenience - because volunteer participation, so sample is skewed towards people who feel strongly about the outcomes of the study
143
what type of sampling is used in QL studies?
NON RANDOM PURPOSIVE because the researcher wants to pick participants who are informed in the phenomenon e.g. studying the meaning of experience of a traumatic birth the sample would be very specific to women with this experience
144
what are the 4 steps in the sampling process
1. identify target population
2. delineate accessible population
3. develop a sampling plan
4. obtain approval from REB
145
why is sample size important
in general, the larger the sample size, the more likely it is to be representative of the population
146
explain the relationship between sample, sample size, and sampling method
sampling method will determine the risk of bias and representativeness of the sample; sample size will also affect the representativeness of the sample
147
selecting a sample based on a volunteers uses a __________ sampling method
convenience
148
in ________ sampling, the researcher ensures that proportional segments of the population are included in the sample
quota
149
bias is greatest with _________ sampling because the researcher hand picks the sample based on the phenomenon under study (don't need to know this for the midterm)
purposive
150
\_\_\_\_\_\_ sampling involves accessing a network of individuals related to a phenomenon e.g. studying chemo therapy in Japanese women with breast cancer: may take sample from a support group of these women (don't need to know this for the midterm)
network, also known as snowball
151
in ___________ sampling, the researcher defines the population, lists all the units of the population, and selects a sample of units from which the sample will be chosen
simple random
152
in ___________ sampling, the researcher defines the population, divides the population into homogeneous subgroups and randomly selects the sample based on the proportion of elements to the population
stratified random sampling
153
what is the difference between accessible and target populations
* target population is the ENTIRE SET of cases that the researcher wants to generalize research findings to
* accessible population meets the population criteria and is available e.g. target population may be all graduates of BSN programs in BC but accessible population is graduates of BSN programs in Vancouver
154
what are the 5 types of data collection methods used in nursing research
"PORQI"
1. physiological instrument
2. observational methods
3. records or available data
4. questionnaire
5. interview
155
what are the advantages and disadvantages of physiological instruments for data collection
* advantages: objectivity, precision, sensitivity
* disadvantages: expensive (equipment), require specialized training/knowledge to use, changes in measurement (e.g. BP goes up when being measured)
156
what are the advantages and disadvantages of observational methods for data collection
* advantages: observation may be the only way for the researcher to study the variable of interest, depth and variety of information collected, can be used in experimental and non-experimental designs, can be used in complex research situations that are difficult to measure e.g. parent-child interactions
* disadvantages: reactivity of participant, bias of the observer, influence of context, observer has to make inferences about what is being observed, ethical concerns about concealment
157
what are the advantages and disadvantages of records or available data for data collection
* advantages: time savings because data is available, allows examination of trends over a long time
* disadvantages: may lack privacy/anonymity, may show bias if available records are not representative of the population, records may have not been saved in an accurate/unbiased manner, data may be missing
158
what are the advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires for data collection
* advantages: enable researcher to approach the task directly, can elicit attitudes and beliefs that would be difficult to obtain otherwise
* disadvantages: do not know if what the interviewee is saying is true (social desirability)
159
what are the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews for data collection
* advantages: enable researcher to approach the task directly, can elicit attitudes and beliefs that would be difficult to obtain otherwise
* disadvantages: do not know if what the interviewee is saying is true e.g. social desirability
160
what should you base the selection of data collection instruments
based on type of data and discreteness of content
see p. 289
161
what is meant by constancy/consistency in data collection
ability of the data collection design to hold the conditions the same for each participant
i.e. each participant is exposed to the same environmental conditions, timing of data collection, data collection instruments, and data collection procedures
162
in what situations would interviews be more appropriate than questionnaires
if content is not discrete, then more appropriate to use unstructured interviews
163
how can bias in data collection be reduced
* with training to ensure that data collection, recording and management methods are consistent between data collectors
* data collection forms, interviews etc. can be reviewed for quality assurance
164
how can ethical concerns in data collection be addressed
when concealment is used in data collection, the problem of consent is handled by informing participants after the observation and allowing them the opportunity to refuse to have their data included in the study and to discuss any questions they may have (debriefing)
165
what is operationalization
the process of translating a concept of interest into observable and measurable phenomena e.g. if obesity is the concept of interest, the measurable/observable phenomenon might be weight or BMI or % body fat
166
goodness of fit in a research study refers to what 5 elements
1. purpose
2. design
3. research question or hypothesis
4. conceptual and operational definitions
5. data collection method
167
define reliability
the extent to which the instrument yields the same results on repeated measures
168
define rigour
* refers to the strictness with which a study is conducted to enhance the quality, believability, or trustworthiness of the study findings
* in QT research, it is determined by VALIDITY and RELIABILITY
169
what are the 3 attributes of reliability
1. homogeneity
2. stability
3. equivalence
170
what is the relationship between validity and reliability
* reliability describes the consistency of measurement of a research instrument i.e. the same results on repeated measures
* validity describes whether a measurement instrument accurately measures that it is intended to measure
* a study MUST have RELIABILITY FIRST before it can have validity but if a study is reliable, does not automatically mean it has validity
171
define validity (of instrument)
whether a measurement instrument accurately measures what it is intended to measure
172
what are the 3 kinds of validity
1. content
2. criterion-related
3. construct
173
what is stability (as it relates to reliability)
when repeated administration of the instrument yields the same results e.g. a thermometer gives the same temperature every time (test-retest reliability)
174
what is homogeneity/internal consistency (related to reliability)
items within the scale reflect or measure the same concept (1 concept only!)
175
what is equivalence (as related to reliability)
consistency or agreement among observers who use the same measurement tool or consistency/agreement between alternative forms of a tool
e.g. 2 observers with the same tool should have the same results (inter-rater reliability)
176
what is a reliability coefficient (alpha coefficient)
what score must a tool get to be considered reliable?
* expresses the relationship between the error variance, true variance, and the observed score
* ranges from 0 to 1: 0 indicates NO RELATIONSHIP, 1 indicates RELIABILITY
* a tool is considered reliable if the score is 0.7 or higher
177
define content validity
degree to which the content of the measure represents the universe of content or the domain of the given behavior
178
define criterion-related validity
degree of relationship between the participant's performance on the measurement tool and participant's actual behavior
179
define concurrent validity
type of CRITERION-RELATED validity
degree of correlation of 2 measures of the same construct administered at the same time e.g. IQ test and SAT for intelligence
180
define construct validity
degree to which a test measures a theoretical construct or trait
181
define predictive validity
type of CRITERION-RELATED validity
degree of correlation between the measure of the concept and a future measure of the same concept
182
define test-retest reliability
stability of scores of an instrument when it is administered more than once to the same participants under similar conditions e.g. IQ test should have same result if given to the same person
183
define interrater reliability
consistency of observations between 2 or more observers with the same tool e.g. 2 different people using the Braden scale should get the same number on the same patient
184
define parallel forms reliability
can only be used if 2 forms of the same instrument exist e.g. numerical pain scale vs. visual analog scale: if same patient with mild pain, both scales should give the same answer relative to their scale
185
what is a power analysis
an advanced statistical technique used to determine the sample size needed for a particular study
