midterm 3 Flashcards
(133 cards)
1
Q
stroop effect
A
tendency to experience difficulty naming a physical colour when it’s used to spell the name of a different colour
○ Reading words is an automatic process, identifying colours is a more controlled process
○ Automatic processing of the word interferes with attempts to identify colour
2
Q
moral intuitionist model
A
Moral judgement is in most cases the result of quick, automatic evaluations (intuitions), not the deliberated outcome of some reasoning process
3
Q
representativeness heuristic
A
- Judging the probability that an object or event belongs to a group or class based on how similar it is to a prototype we have in our mind
- Often involves base rate neglect
- Conjunction fallacy: idea that two events are more likely to occur together rather than independently (not true)
E.g., guy wearing a suit so must be a lawyer (look like stereotype of lawyer)
4
Q
availability heuristic
A
Judging the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind
- Probability Neglect
E.g., horrific plane crash scene on the news makes you scared of flying, but likelihood of dying from car crash is far higher
5
Q
anchoring effects
A
- Tendency to rely on the first piece of information offered (the “anchor”) when making decisions
- Example of jacket being marked down
- Most often quantitative data or numbers
6
Q
framing effects
A
- The way we present or frame an issue can significantly affect our decisions and judgment
○ We are particularly adverse to loss
○ Emphasis on the risk rather than the success changes the response even though the information is inherently the same
○ E.g., more likely to think condoms are ineffective if told that they’re 5% ineffective rather than 95% effective
7
Q
confirmation bias
A
- Tendency to search for, evaluate, and recall information in a way that supports our preexisting beliefs or hypotheses
○ Searching for information, interpreting information, remembering information
8
Q
supervisory attention system (SAS)
A
- controlled processing
- Control of conscious attention required for new tasks
- Tends to be more accurate
9
Q
contention scheduling system
A
- automatic processing
- Control of well learned actions
- Tends to require fewer resources but is more vulnerable to errors
10
Q
Rule-based categorization
A
Categorizing objects or events according to a certain set of rules or by a specific set of features (like a dictionary definition of a triangle)
11
Q
Graded membership - arises from rules not telling the full story of how categorization works. What is it?
A
the observation that some concepts appear to make better category members than others.
12
Q
Exemplar vs prototype
A
Exemplar: a specific, real example that best represents a category;
Prototype: an image that combines typical features of category
13
Q
Basic-level category
A
Located in the middle row of the diagram. Properties:
- terms most often used in conversation
- easiest to pronounce
- level at which prototypes exist
- level at which most thinking occurs
e.g., bird
14
Q
Superordinate category
A
Located at the top row of the diagram. They’re generally used when someone’s uncertain about an object or when they wish to group together multiple examples from the basic-level category e.g., animal
15
Q
Subordinate-level category
A
Located at the bottom row of the diagram. It suggests that there’s something special about this particular type of basic-level thing. It may also indicate that they have expert-level knowledge on this thing.
16
Q
Lexical decision task
A
A person should be quicker to identify something as a word if it follows a word that is semantically related. e.g., identifying apple as a word if it follows fruit
17
Q
What is category specific visual agnosia (CSVA)?
A
Damage to certain parts of the brain can impair the ability to recognize some categories while leaving other unaffected. e.g., patients couldn’t identify pictures of animals or vegetables despite the fact that they were able to describe the different shapes that made up those objects.
18
Q
Who began the systematic attempt to measure intelligence in the modern era, and what was their belief on indicating intelligence?
A
Francis Galton believed that because people learn about the world through their senses, those with superior sensory abilities would be able to learn more about it. So, sensory abilities should be an indicator of intelligence.
19
Q
Anthropometrics
A
“The measurement of people” - Methods of measuring physical and mental variation in humans
20
Q
From Alfred Binet’s theory (intelligence should be measured by complex mental processes), how do we now define intelligence?
A
The ability to think, understand, reason, and adapt to or overcome obstacles; intelligence reflects how well ppl are able to reason and solve problems plus their accumulated knowledge.
21
Q
Mental age
A
The average intellectual ability score for children of a specific age
22
Q
Stanford-Binet test
A
test intended to measure innate levels of intelligence
23
Q
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
A
Provides a single IQ score for each test taker (the full scale IQ), but also breaks intelligence into a General Ability Index (GAI), and a Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI).
24
Q
John Raven developed Raven’s Progressive Matrices, which is what kind of test?
A
An intelligence test that is based on pictures, not words, thus making it relatively unaffected by language or cultural background
25
Social Darwinism and eugenics
Many people viewed eugenics ("good genes") as a way to improve the human gene pool. Their definition of improve meant helping "civilize" other cultures by assimilating them into the "superior" cultural system. People thought that intelligence was largely genetic and so unintelligence good be bred out.
26
self-actualization
the point at which a person reaches his or her full potential as a creative, deep-thinking, and accepting human being
- the peak of maslow's hierarchy of needs
27
order of maslow's hierarchy of needs (least to most important)
- self-actualization needs
- aesthetic needs
- cognitive needs
- esteem needs
- belongingness and love needs
- safety needs
- physiological needs
28
terror management theory (TMT)
A psychological perspective asserting that the human fear of mortality motivates behaviour, particularly behaviours that preserve self-esteem and our sense of belonging
29
approach goal
an enjoyable and pleasant incentive that a person is drawn toward, such as praise, financial reward, or a feeling of satisfaction
30
avoidance goal
an attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome such as shame, embarrassment, losing money, or feeling emotional pain
31
what are the 3 universal needs
relatedness: feeling connected to others
autonomy: the need to feel control in your own life
competence: the ability to perform a task at the skill level that is satisfying to the individual
32
The Bell Curve
Book that looked at race differences in IQ, and argued that those of high intelligence were reproducing less than those of low intelligence. A healthy society would be one where people who had the most ability and worked hardest would receive the most wealth, power, and status.
33
Entity theory
The belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and difficult or impossible to change
34
Incremental theory
The belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort
35
What kind of person is a savant?
An individual with low mental capacity in most domains but extraordinary abilities in other specific areas such as music, math, or art.
36
What did Charles Spearman do?
He began developing techniques to calculate correlations among multiple measures of mental abilities. He also hypothesized the existence of a general intelligence factor.
37
General intelligence factor ("g")
g represented a person's "mental energy", reflecting Spearman's belief that some people's brains are simply more "powerful" than others
38
What are limitations of g?
Correlation doesn't equal causation, so it's possible that correlations between g and job performance are due to a third variable like motivation. Also, measures of g don't tell us about how much intelligence works, only whether people tend to do well on various types of tasks.
39
What is "s"?
s represents the specific-level skill-based intelligence. Individual differences on these skills explains some of the variability on intelligence tests that isn't accounted for by g.
40
Who was Louis Thurstone and what was his influence?
examined scores of general intelligence tests using factor analysis, and found seven clusters that he termed primary mental abilities
41
Thurstone's seven factors termed primary mental abilities
1) Word fluency - ability to produce language fluently
2) Verbal comprehension
3) Numeric abilities
4) Spatial visualization
5) Memory
6) Perceptual speed
7) Reasoning
42
Fluid intelligence (Gf) vs crystallized intelligence (Gc)
Gf: a type of intelligence used in learning new info and solving new problems not based on knowledge the person already possesses;
Gc: a type of intelligence that draws upon past learning and experience
43
Howard Gardner proposed the Theory of multiple intelligences, which is what?
a model claiming that there are seven (now updated to at least 9) different forms of intelligence, each independent from the others
44
Gardner's proposed forms of intelligence
1) Verbal/linguistic intelligence - read, write, speak effectively
2) Logical/mathematical intelligence - think w/ numbers and use abstract thought
3) Visuospatial intelligence - create mental pictures & manipulate them
4) Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence - control body movements
5) Musical/rhythmical intelligence - produce/comprehend tonal & rhythmic patterns
6) Interpersonal intelligence - detect ppl's emotional states, motives, & thoughts
7) Self/intrapersonal intelligence - self-awareness
8) Naturalist intelligence - recognize/identify processes in natural world
9) Existential intelligence - ask questions about purpose in life & meaning of existence
45
In what two steps do cognitive appraisals of stress occur?
1) Person perceives the potential threat and begins the primary appraisal by asking "is that a threat?". If no, no stress, if yes, then they'll experience a physiological stress reaction;
2) Next is the secondary appraisal where they determine how to cope w/ the threat. If they find they know how to cope w/ the stressor, won't feel much stress, but if the stressor goes beyond their ability to cope, the physiological and emotional reactions to the stress will continue.
46
Individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF)
a range of emotional intensity in which he or she is most likely to perform at his or her best
47
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
a theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
48
Alarm
Your recognition of the threat and the physiological reactions that accompany it (blood pressure, muscle tension, heart rate, adrenaline release).
49
Resistance
Someone using their physical and mental resources to respond to the stressor in an appropriate way (studying for a quiz, running away from predators).
50
Exhaustion
Occurs when the stressful experience depletes your physical resources and your physiological stress response, thus your ability to cope declines
51
The influence of stress on immunity
Acute stressors tend to activate the immune system, whereas chronic exposure to stress generally causes suppression of the immune system
52
Coping (problem-focused vs emotion-focused)
Coping refers to the processes used to manage demands, stress, and conflict;
Problem-focused - cope by defining the problem and working towards a solution;
Emotion-focused - finding ways to reduce the negative effects your emotions are having on yourself and others.
53
Negative affectivity
tendency to respond to problems w/ a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt, or nervousness; these negative emotions make it difficult for these ppl to choose an appropriate coping strategy for a given problem.
54
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
A structured relaxation program based on elements of mindfulness meditation; its primary goal is to help ppl to cope and relax by increasing the link between body and mind. E.g., body scan where participants pay attention to the sensation of their toes, then feet, ankles, calves, and so on -- engage in attentional control.
55
Integrated mind-body training (IMBT)
combination of relaxation and posture correction, as well as instructions for heightening awareness of your own body -- enhance control of attention, as well as control of bodily physiology.
56
What did Martin Seligman do?
Conducted a study on avoidance learning in dogs. Dogs that could avoid a painful shock would quickly learn to do so. Conversely, dogs that initially learned they could not avoid a shock remained passive when the opportunity to do so was given.
57
Learned helplessness
an acquired suppression of avoidance or escape behaviour in response to unpleasant, uncontrollable circumstances; the subject learns that their actions can't remove the stress in one situation, and then generalizes that helplessness to other situations.
58
Perceived control and stress
The degree to which a person perceives a stressor to be controllable will influence whether the stress response will be inhibited, and whether the person will experience an event as being stressful.
59
Compensatory control
psychological strategies people use to preserve a sense of non-random order when personal control is compromised. Eg., ppl who are skeptical of a divine purpose in the world may change their view in the wake of personal or societal tragedy
60
Response styles
Characteristic ways of responding to questions; these response styles can be strongly influenced by cultural norms. E.g., in one culture it may be socially acceptable to say positive things about yourself, but in another that might be considered rude.
61
what is emotion
- A complex psychological event that involves a mixture of reactions
1. A physiological response (usually arousal)
2. An expressive reaction (distinctive facial expression, body posture, or vocalization)
3. Some kind of subjective experience (internal thoughts and feelings)
62
what causes an initial response
Amygdala: Rapid response to emotionally arousing stimuli (especially aversive/fear-inducing stimuli); threat detector
- sends information to outer brain areas for more complex responding
63
what is the autonomic nervous system
- Rest and digest
- Fight or flight
64
theories of emotions: common sense view
○ We subjectively experience an emotion (fear!) and this causes bodily arousal (trembling)
○ I tremble because I am scared
Stimulus - conscious feeling - autonomic arousal
65
theories of emotions: james-lange theory
○ We first experience physiological arousal (trembling) and this causes the subjective emotion (fear!)
○ I feel afraid because I tremble
Stimulus - autonomic arousal - conscious feeling
66
theories of emotions: cannon-bard theory
○ Stimulus activates both the body (trembling) and the cortex (fear); not causal, correlational
○ The dog makes me tremble and feel afraid
○ Stimulus - subcortical activity - conscious feeling or autonomic arousal
67
theories of emotions: schacter & singer
first we have a physical response (trembling) we interpret that response (this is dangerous), leading to subjective emotion (fear)
○ Stimulus - appraisal - conscious feeling
○ Context and expectation are important
68
two factor theory of emotion: schacter & singer classic studies
○ Participants injected with adrenaline (increases arousal)
§ Group 1: told about the symptoms (informed)
§ Group 2: no information (ignorant)
○ Waiting room: angry or happy confederate
- No emotion experienced when participants could explain away arousal
- When unexpected arousal, participants look to context for interpretation = emotion
69
what is the misattribution of arousal - dutton and aron
- Capilano river:
○ High, scary bridge
○ Low stable trail
- Attractive female RA talked to crossers, gave them contact info
○Dependant variable: ppl on high bridge called back
○ Fear arousal: misinterpreted as attraction
70
What is happiness and what are the three components of happiness?
- Aristotle: happiness as virtue (living a good and virtuous life)
- Happiness as "subjective well-being" (SWB)
- Three components
1. Positive affect
2. Negative affect
3. Life satisfaction
71
set point and hedonic treadmill
Set point: genetically-determined biological predisposition for happiness
○ Happiness is about 50% heritable (genetic)
hedonic treadmill: tendency to return to a relatively stable level of happiness
72
how does hemispheric frontal lobe activity influence happiness and emotions (adults and babies)
○ Babies with dominant right prefrontal cortex more distressed by separation
○ Adults with dominant left prefrontal cortex are happier
73
hedonic adaptation
after something positive or negative occurs and there are positive or negative emotions, we are able to return to a stable baseline level of affect
74
Polymorphic genes
(poly = "multiple; morph = "form), meaning there are different versions of the same gene that lead to different physical or behavioural characteristics
75
what is the psychoanalytic perspective (Freud)
- Purposed personality is determined by unconscious drives, which shape how we approach and interact with the world
- Freuds main contributions
○ Concept of our unconscious mind
○ Psychosexual stages of developments
○ Defense mechanisms for alleviating anxiety
76
defence mechanisms: denial
refusing to acknowledge unpleasant information
○ An addict who can't see that they have a problem
77
defence mechanisms: rationalization
generating excuses for our behaviour
○ Fired person tells himself that people don't appreciate his genius
78
defence mechanisms: reaction formation
switch one impulse into it's opposite
○ Someone who feels inadequate creates a persona that is over confident
79
defence mechanisms: projection
attributing your own impulses to others
○ Consciously thinking your partner is unhappy when really (unconsciously) you are
80
personality development: oral stage
○ Typical age range: 0-18 months
○ Theme: eating and feeling dependant
§ Seek stimulation through the lips and mouth
§ Children of this age need their parents for everything
Fixation at this stage: over-fed/over-protected or under-fed/neglected child would develop issues with dependancy
81
personality development: anal stage
○ Typical age range: 18-36 months
○ Theme: expelling waste and exerting control
§ Potty training (or refusing to potty train) allows children to exert some control over their lives
§ Fixation at this stage: harsh or liberal toilet training leads to 'anal retentive' (obsession with cleanliness, order, control) or 'anal expulsive' (disorganized, slacker) personality
82
personality development: latency stage
○ Typical age range: 6-11 years old
○ Theme: diverted focus/external activities
§ Sexual impulses are subdued
§ Energy is directed into producing social, academic or cultural achievements
§ Fixation: not an issue
83
personality development: genital stage
○ Typical age range: 12 yrs - adulthood
○ Theme: sexual activities and maturity
§ Before this stage individuals are narcissistic and self-oriented
§ Develop into mature, adult personality (as long as not fixated at earlier stages)
84
personality development: phallic stage
○ Typical age range: 3-6 years
○ Theme: genital organs and jealousy
§ Fascination with wanting to touch oneself (not necessarily in a sexual way - sometimes just out of interest and curiosity)
§ Oedipus complex: boys desire their mothers, jealous of their fathers (also girls and penis envy); development of superego
§ Fixation at this stage: jealousy, obsessions with power and sex
85
lexical hypothesis
important differences in human behaviour will become encoded in language
86
sociometer theory
self-esteem is a gauge of perceived social value; the degree to which one feels valued by others (internal system)
○ Low self-esteem associated with low perceived regard, regardless of what others actually think
○ Self protective behaviour and negative relationship outcomes
87
measuring personality: self-other knowledge asymmetry model (SOKA)
○ When a trait is low in observability (ie. Inwardly expressed) self-ratings are more valid than informant ratings
○ When a trait is strongly evaluative (i.e. socially desirable or undesirable) self-ratings are less valid than informant
88
genetic influences
- Major personality dimensions ~50% heritable
- The rest of the influence comes from non-shared environment (ie. Non parenting)
89
Situationism:
differences in behaviour are determined by the situation rather than the traits a person possesses
90
social cognitive theories
- Emphasize the role of both social contexts and internal cognitive processes, such as beliefs and expectancies
○ Personality as a stable patterns of IF-THEN situation behaviour relationships ("signatures")
91
reciprocal determinism
the individual and the environment influence one another
92
Evolution as it relates to individual variation in personality
the complex blends of personality types across society evolved b/c different traits were desirable in different circumstances.
93
Humourism
theory which explained both physical illnesses and disorders of personality as resulting from imbalances in key fluids in the body -- the four "humours"
94
ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)
brain system that plays a central role in controlling arousal response
95
behavioural activation system (BAS) & its relation to the Big Five
a "GO" system, arousing the person to action in the pursuit of desired goals -- responsive to rewards (positive emotional responses & approach motivation) and unresponsive to possible negative consequences; extraversion related to BAS activation
96
behavioural inhibition system (BIS) & its relation to the Big Five
a "danger" system, motivating the person to action in order to avoid punishments or other negative outcomes -- associated with greater negative emotional responses and avoidance motivation; neuroticism related to BIS activation
97
Approaches to encouraging positive behaviour change and reducing negative behaviours
Technological - making desired behaviours easier to accomplish & undesired more difficult;
Legal - creating policies & laws to encourage/reward positive behaviours while discouraging/punishing negative;
Economic - providing financial incentives/penalties (taxes & pricing);
Social - using info and communication to raise awareness, educate, & illustrate positive/negative outcomes of relevant behaviours
98
elaboration likelihood model (ELM) & factors of process decision
a dual-process model of persuasion that predicts whether factual info or other types of info will be most influential;
Motivation - audiences have interest in the topic so motivated to think rationally about it
Time - audiences have time to make a decision so they'll be more rational; if they lack motivation or time, they'll react more intuitively.
99
central route to persuasion
about substance, focuses on facts, logic, and the content of a message in order to persuade -people will be convinced, internalizing the message as smthg they believe in
100
peripheral route to persuasion
focuses on features of the issue or presentation that are not factual - lacking the time/motivation to think about it, a first impression (attractiveness of the person giving info) can persuade an individual
101
construal-level theory
describes how info affects us differently depending on our psychological distance from the info - specific, personal, concrete details feels more personal; general, impersonal, abstract terms feels less personal.
102
identifiable victim effect
describes how ppl are more powerfully moved to action by the story of a single suffering person than by info about a whole group of ppl
103
The experiential system
operates more implicitly, quickly, and intuitively and is predominantly emotional - responds strongly to personal experiences, images, stories, and other's emotions; specializes in intuition and feeling
104
The analytical system
operates more at the explicit level of consciousness, is slower and more methodical, and uses logical and discursive thinking (reasoning language) to try to understand reality; specializes in understanding
105
attitude inoculation
strategy for strengthening attitudes and making them more resistant to change by first exposing ppl to a weak counter-argument and then refuting that argument
106
cognitive dissonance theory
when we hold inconsistent beliefs, this creates a kind of aversive inner tension ("dissonance"); we are then motivated to reduce this tension in whatever we can - simply changing the beliefs that created the dissonance. E.g., hazing - after initiation rituals, they enhance their perceptions that this is a group worth belonging to
107
What is motivation?
Internal processes that activate, energize, and sustain behaviour toward specific goals.
1) Antecedent conditions - external events, social contexts
2) Internal processes - needs, cognitions, emotions
3) Activate, energize, direct, and sustain behaviour
108
Drive-Reduction theory
1) Need - state of deprivation (e.g., for food, water)
2) Drive - aroused state of tension (e.g., hunger, thirst)
3) Drive-reducing behaviour (e.g., eating, drinking)
4) Homeostasis - tendency to maintain a balanced internal state (e.g., satiated, hydrated)
109
Expectancy theory (Efficacy expectation, outcome expectation, & value)
Subjective prediction of the likelihood of future events
o Efficacy expectation: Judgment of our capacity to perform an action effectively (self-efficacy) (don’t believe in your ability to perform that behaviour, not going to try).
o Outcome expectation: Judgment that a given action, once we do it, will cause a particular outcome (think that whether or not you study it's not going to make a difference, not going to study).
But...behaviour also depends on value (how much we care) - if any of these are zero, behaviour won't occur
110
Process of hunger and eating behaviour + peripheral detectors
* When glucose levels drop (i.e., low blood sugar):
o Liver signals the brain (lateral hypothalamus) to encourage eating - “On” switch
* When glucose levels too high:
o Liver signals ventromedial hypothalamus to signal stop eating - “Off” switch
* Peripheral detectors: stomach distensions, body temperature
111
Intrasexual selection vs intersexual selection
* Intrasexual selection: Member of one sex compete to gain access to members of the other sex
o Victory results in reproductive success (fist fights)
o The other sex is passive (members of the other sex is just waiting to see who wins the battle).
* Intersexual selection: Members of one sex compete to be chosen by members of the other sex
o Victory results in reproductive success (fancy cars, push up bras, etc.) (showiness to make them appealing so that they’ll be chosen by the other sex).
o The other sex is active (you’re competing to be chosen, other sex chooses).
112
Germinal stage
0-2 weeks "ZYGOTE" Single egg fertilized by sperm; Implantation = attachment to lining of uterus; Blastocyst consists of inner and outer layer of cells
113
Embryonic stage
2-8 weeks "EMBRYO" formation of the face; spinal cord, brain, stomach, heart, & lungs are developing; heartbeat is detectable w/ ultrasound
114
Fetal stage
8 weeks - birth "FETUS" skeletal, organ, and nervous systems develop and become more specialized; motor systems allow fetus to move; sensory systems allow fetus to respond to stimuli
115
The Infant's Brain: Neural connections
Synaptogenesis: Forming of new synaptic connections (tremendous speed);
Synaptic pruning: Loss of weak connections
116
The Infant's Brain: Critical Period (CP)
certain experiences are necessary for proper development; Visual CP – must be exposed to all types of visual information. E.g., cats and stripes study
117
Motor Development: 3 Newborn Reflexes
Rooting reflex - stroke the cheek of an infant – will move head toward the hand, seemingly looking for something to suck;
Moro reflex - startle response to a loud noise, sudden movement (arches back, throws back head, flings out arms and legs, pulls arms back inward in hugging motion) - response of “pick me up” or trying to hold onto the caregiver;
Grasping reflex - when something touches the infant’s palms, infant grasps it tightly
118
Infant motor development (universal sequence + maturation)
Raise head / roll over / sit up / crawl / walk / run - variability is in timing;
Maturation: children develop abilities biologically in certain time frames, until maturation that behaviour is impossible (can't walk at 3 months old b/c haven't reached that state of maturation)
119
Sensory development
Auditory system: developed by birth, babies cry w/ accents (trying to communicate w/ their parents);
Visual system: not well developed, 1/40th visual acuity of adults, colour (2 months), depth (4 months) - importance of experiences. Strong social preferences - look to voices, prefer face-like displays (our nature as social species)
120
Piaget's Insight
Children aren't little adults, they have different reasoning abilities; they learn through interacting w/ the world, trying to make sense of their experience in new ways
121
Piaget's core idea - schema
Children learn through schemas - flexible concept/framework to make sense of info by organizing and interpreting it;
Assimilation: incorporate new info into them;
Accommodation: adjust them to fit new experiences.
E.g., boy learns cat, assimilate dog into his schema for cat, told dog isn't a cat, accommodates his schema for cats to now only include certain four-legged furry animals
122
Sensorimotor stage (0-2)
* World taken in through sensations and motor experiences
* Object permanence: awareness that objects continue to exist when out of sight
o Piaget: Not developed until after 8-12 months
123
Preoperational stage (2-6)
* World represented with words and images
o Language develops
o Pretend play
* Lack of logical and abstract reasoning
o Conservation: The principle that quantity remains the same despite changing shape (scale errors - even adults have trouble w/ this)
* Theory of mind
o Preschoolers are egocentric: Unable to infer other’s mental states (lack theory of mind) - assume other people have the same knowledge that they have).
124
Concrete Operation stage (7-11)
* Think logically about concrete events
* Children now understand:
o Conservation: Quantity remains the same despite changes in shape
o Reversibility: Ability to reverse operations (a deflated soccer ball is still a soccer ball)
125
Formal Operational stage (12-adult)
* Children are now able to think abstractly and hypothetically, and perform reasoning problems
126
What did Harry Harlow and John Bowlby do?
Harlow: studied monkeys separated from their mothers finding that they preferred a cloth "mother" regardless of whether that's what fed it;
Bowlby: studied orphans failure to thrive without emotional security provided by maternal care.
They both concluded that emotional bonding is an innate, powerful need in its own right.
127
Three functions of attachment
1. Proximity maintenance: Seeking and sustaining physical closeness;
2. Safe haven: Returning for comfort and reassurance when in need of support;
3. Secure base: Using the attachment figure as a foundation for confident play and exploration
128
Attachment styles - characteristic pattern of relating to others based on history w/ caregiver
Secure - Infants trust a responsive caregiver, easily comforted, feel comfortable to explore;
Anxious/Ambivalent - Infants cling to inconsistent caregiver, protest extremely when needs aren’t met;
Avoidant - Infants appear detached from unresponsive or rejecting caregiver;
Disorganized - Infants alternate between wanting to get away and wanting to be comforted
129
Adult attachment correlation
Low avoidance (see others as emotionally available) vs high avoidance (see others as emotionally unavailable);
Low anxiety (feel worthy of love) vs high anxiety (feel unworthy of love);
- Low avoidance + low anxiety = Secure
- Low avoidance + high anxiety = Anxious/Preoccupied (ambivalent)
- High avoidance + high anxiety = Fearful (disorganized)
- High avoidance + low anxiety = Dismissing/avoidant
130
Erikson's Psychosocial Development (overlapping stages that extend from infancy to old age)
1) Trust vs. Mistrust - infant - if needs are met dependably, develop emotional security
2) Autonomy vs. Shame/doubt - toddler - develop sense of personal control & independence, or doubt ability
3) Initiative vs. Guilt - preschool - try things out & exert control over environment; disapproval leads to guilt
4) Industry vs. Inferiority - childhood - learn to cope w/ social & academic demands: failure
131
menarche and spermarch
menarche: the onset of menstruation
spermarche: the first ejaculation of sperm
132
Four horsemen of the (relationship) apocalypse
Criticism: picking out flaws, expressing disappointment, correcting each other, negative comments about friends and family
Defensiveness: responding to perceived attacks with counter attacks
Contempt: dismissive eye rolls, sarcastic comments, a cutting tone of voice
Stonewalling: shutting down emotionally and verbally
133
decline associated with aging
reduced volume of white and grey matter of the cerebral cortex and memory processing hippocampus
affects to prefrontal cortex and other subcortal regions
dementia
alzheimers disease (worst case senario)
