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Biology 211 > Midterm 3 > Flashcards

Midterm 3 Flashcards

1
Q

When was the end-Permian mass extinction?

A

251 mya

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2
Q

When was the end-Cretaceous mass extinction?

A

65 mya

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3
Q

What are adaptive radiations?

A

Rapid increases in species diversity that are driven by adaptation to diverse environments.

They happen when there is little competition between organisms.

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4
Q

Complex traits evolve ________.

A

incrementally/slowly over time

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5
Q

To contain life, what 4 things likely happened?

A

1) abiotic (non-life) synthesis of organic compounds
2) abiotic synthesis of macromolecules
3) formation of “protocells”
4) formation of self-replicating, information-

containing, catalytic molecules (e.g., RNA)

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6
Q

What are fossil stromatolites?

A

Structures formed by films of prokaryotes (especially a kind of prokaryote called “cyanobacteria”). A film grows, then another grows on top, etc… and eventually a large, layered structure forms.

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7
Q

What was the oxygen revolution?

A

Rapid increase in oxygen levels at 2.4 bya

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8
Q
A
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9
Q

What is evolutionary radiation?

A

When many species are formed in relatively short amounts of time

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10
Q

What are the 3 basic shapes of prokaryotes?

A

spherical (cocci)

rod-shaped (bacilli)

spiral

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11
Q

____________is a key component of the cell wall in bacteria

A

peptidoglycan

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12
Q

What color is gram positive bacteria?

What color is gram negative bacteria?

A

gram positive - blue

gram negative - red

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13
Q

What is the difference in structure between gram negative and gram positive bacteria?

A

Gram-negative has two membranes

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14
Q

What are fimbriae?

A

Short hair-like structures that prokaryotes use to attach to substrates or to each other

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15
Q

What are pili?

A

Long hair-like structures that prokaryotes use to attach to each other for the purpose of transferring DNA between cells

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16
Q

The prokaryotic genome consists of what two things?

A
  1. Circular chromosomes
  2. Plasmids
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17
Q

What are the 4 nutritional modes of bacteria?

A

photoautotrophs - light and CO2

photoheterotrophs - light and organic carbon source

chemoautotrophs - chemicals and CO2

chemoheterotrophs - chemicals and organic carbon source (all animals)

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18
Q

Define facultative anaerobe

A

Can alternate between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism, depending on whether or not oxygen is present

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19
Q

What are the 3 ways prokaryotes use nitrogen?

A

Nitrogen fixers – convert atmospheric N2 gas into ammonia (NH3), which is usable by other organisms (used to make proteins and nucleic acids)

Nitrifiers – oxidize NH3 to nitrite (NO2) or nitrate (NO3)

Denitrifiers – use nitrite or nitrate as terminal electron acceptors during anaerobic respiration, producing N2 gas

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20
Q

Name 3 ways prokaryotes get DNA

A

Transformation – picking up DNA from the environment

Transduction – getting DNA injected by a virus

Conjugation – getting DNA from another bacterium. The cells connect via a pilus, and DNA (either plasmid or chromosome DNA) is transferred from one to the other.

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21
Q

The movement of DNA between individuals of different species, or ______________________ is very common in prokaryotes.

A

horizontal gene transfer

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22
Q

In prokaryotes, we usually focus on genes coding for ________.

A

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

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23
Q

From these which are gram negative:

proteobacteria

spirochetes

chlamydias

cyanobacteria (photoautotrophs with chlorophyll a)

High GC gram positives

Low GC gram positives

A

All except the gram positives

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24
Q

Eukaryote chloroplasts are derived by _________ from

____________.

A

endosymbiosis , cyanobacteria

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25
Q

What are three main differences between Archaea and Bacteria?

A

Archaea:

  1. DO NOT have peptidoglycan wall
  2. Have some branched hydrocarbons cell wall
  3. Grown NOT inhibited by antibiotics
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26
Q

What are some of the extreme environments Archaea can live in?

A

Thermophilic - very hot

Acidophilic - Low pH

Methanogens - obligate anaerobes

Halophiles - very salty

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27
Q

What are the 3 types of symbiosis?

A

commensalism: one species benefits, one species is neither

helped nor harmed

mutualism: both species benefit

parasitism: one species benefits, one species is harmed

(when these cause disease, they are called

pathogens)

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28
Q

What are the 2 main components of a virus?

A
  1. Capsid - shell of protein
  2. Genome - single or double stranded DNA or RNA
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29
Q

Describe the lytic cycle for viruses.

What is different about the lysogenic cycle?

A

Lytic

  1. Get inside host cell
  2. Replicate using host cell’s components
  3. Cell lysis (bursts)

For the lysogenic cycle, the infected cell replicates many times with the dormant virus

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30
Q

How did eukaryotic cells arise from a prokaryotic ancestor?

A
  1. Gain flexible cell surface
  2. Develop cytoskeleton
  3. Develop nuclear envelope and ability to endocytose external materials
  4. Aquire organelles by endosymbiosis
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31
Q

Why do scientists believe mitochondria are phagocytosed proteobacteria (gram-negative)?

A

Mitochondria have:

  • 2 membranes
  • Use Binary Fission
  • Their DNA is circular
  • They make their own ribosomes
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32
Q

At some point, an ancestral eukaryote phagocytosed

photosynthetic _______________

that were not digested.

A

cyanobacteria

• these continued to divide, and

evolved into chloroplasts

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33
Q

Compare plastids and chloroplasts

A

Plastids are highly specialized, double membrane-bound organelles found within the cells of all plants and algae. A type of plastid called the chloroplast is the cellular location of the process of photosynthesis.

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34
Q

What is primary endosymbiosis?

A

The original endosymbiotic event: phagocytosis of a cyanobacterium by a eukaryotic cell which evolved into plastids

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35
Q

Primary endosymbiosis gave rise to the plastids of a large clade of eukaryotes called the ___________.

A

Archaeplastida

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36
Q

The Archaeplastida clade includes

A
  • chlorophytes & charophytes (aka “green algae”)
  • land plants
  • red algae (red algal chloroplasts retain some pigments that were

present in the original cyanobacterium)

-glaucophytes

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37
Q

Define Secondary Endosymbiosis

A

endosymbiosis of an archaeplastid cell (which got its plastid via 1° endosymbiosis) in another eukaryote host.

– this process gave rise to the chloroplasts in most other photosynthetic eukaryotes; 2°endosymbiosis has happened repeatedly. Usually retain multiple membranes

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38
Q

All eukaryotes except for plants, animals, and fungi are called ______

A

Protists

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39
Q

In terms of nutrition, protists can be

A

photoautotrophs - (e.g., archaeplastids) - these are often called “algae”

chemoheterotrophs - these are often called “protozoans”

mixotrophs – they can do both photoautotrophy AND chemoheterotrophy

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40
Q

What are the 4 major clades of protists?

A

Archaeplastida - clear synapomorphy: plastids derived from primary endosymbiosis

Excavata - DNA sequence data, unicellular

“SAR” clade

Unikonta - one flagellum, if flagella are present

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41
Q

What is the Diplontic Life Cycle? (animals)

A
  1. Gametes (n) fertilize to make Zygote (2n)
  2. Zygote (2n) undergoes mitosis - forms multicellular organism (2n)
  3. Organism (2n) undergoes Meiosis to form gametes (n)

*The only haploid cells are gametes*

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42
Q

What is the Haplontic Life Cycle? (fungi, protists)

A
  1. Gametes (n) fertilized to make diploid zigote (2n)
  2. Diploid zigote (2n) undergoes Meiosis to produce haploid cells (n)
  3. Haploid cells (n) undergo Mitosis forming a haploid unicellular or multicellular organism (n) and gametes (n)

*The only diploid cells are Zigote*

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43
Q

What is the Alteration of Generations Life Cycle? (plants)

A
  1. Gametes (n) fertilized to make diploid zygote (2n)
  2. Diploid zygote (2n) undergoes mitosis to form a diploid multicellular sporophyte (2n)
  3. Sporophyte (2n) undergoes Meiosis to produce haploid spores (n)
  4. Spores (n) undergo Mitosis to form haploid multicellular gametophyte (n)
  5. Gametophyte (n) undergoes mitosis to produce gametes (n)
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44
Q

All members of the Archaeaplastida clade use ___________ as their main photosynthetic pigment.

A

chlorophyll a (chl a)

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45
Q

_____________ are sister-taxon to the rest of the Archaeplastida.

A

Glaucophytes

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46
Q

_________ is a paraphyletic group made up of chlorophytes and charophytes

A

“Green algae”

– in addition to chl a, these contain

chl b; so do land plants

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47
Q

The 3 main groups in the Excavata clade are

A

diplomonads- reduced mitochondria called mitosomes (don’t function is respiration)

parabasalids - reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes (function in anaerobic respiration)

euglenids

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48
Q

What are kinetoplastids?

A

– unicellular, with a single large

mitochondrion that contains a kinetoplast

(a small mass of DNA that contains the

mitochondrial genome)

– some are “free-living” (not symbiotic),

but the best-known members of this

groups are parasites

49
Q

What are the 3 major groups of the SAR clade?

A

Stramenopiles

Alveolates

Rhizarians

50
Q

What are the 3 stramenopiles?

A
  1. Diatoms - unicellular, 20% world’s photosynthesis, oil deposits
  2. Golden Algae - unicellular
  3. Brown Algae - multicellular, extremely large
51
Q

What are the 3 alveolates?

A
  1. Dinoflagellates
  2. Apicomplexans
  3. Ciliates - contain micronuclei and macronuclei
52
Q

All alveolates have ”_________”, membrane-enclosed sacs just beneath the surface of the plasma membrane

A

Alveoli

53
Q

Compare macronuclei and micronuclei

A

– the macronucleus contains many copies

of the genome, packaged into units; it

regulates the life of the cell

– the micronuclei are “normal” 2N nuclei;

they are essential for mixing of genetic

information between individuals

54
Q

In ciliates, sex is called ________

A

conjugation

In conjugation, you start with two individuals and end with two

individuals (but the ending two individuals now have different

genotypes than when they started!)

55
Q

What are the 3 rhizarians?

A

Foraminiferans

Cercozoans

Radiolarians

56
Q

What are the two major clades of Unikonta?

A
  • amoebozoans (slime molds, tubulinids, entamoebas)
  • opisthokonts (nucleariids, choanoflagellates , fungi and animals)
57
Q

Another name for land plants is ________.

A

embryophytes

58
Q

Land plants (Embryophytes) are __________, which is defined by plastids that arose by primary endosymbiosis.

The common ancestor of the clade had:

A

Archaeplastida

– chl a

– phycoerythrin

– cellulose in the cell walls

59
Q

What two things happened in the lineage leading to the green algae?

A
  1. loss of phycoerythrin
  2. gain of chl b
60
Q

_________ are a clade of multicellular “green algae” that includes land plants.

A

Charophytes

61
Q

Charophytes coat their zygotes with a layer of a very strong polymer, ____________, that helps protect zygotes from desiccation.

A

sporopollenin

62
Q

The common ancestor of the charophyte/land plant clade very likely had:

A

– chlorophylls a and b (but no phycoerythrin)

–cellulose in the cell wall

– formation of a phragmoplast during mitosis

– sporopollenin

63
Q

What are the 8 derived traits of embryophytes?

A
  1. Cuticle - waxy lipids
  2. Stomata - small openings
  3. Apical meristems - growth zones
  4. Mutualisms with soil fungi
  5. Alternation of generations life cycle - charophytes are haplontic, but all land plants have A of G life cycles!
  6. Multicellular gametangia - gametophytes produce gametes in multicellular organs called gametangia
  7. Protected, dependent embryos: retained inside the female gametophyte
  8. Spores with sporopollenin-rich walls - produced in sporangia
64
Q

archegonium is a _________ gametangium

antheridium is a _________ gametangium

A

female

male

65
Q

_________ are structures produced by diploid sporophytes

A

Sporangia

66
Q

Land plants can be categorized by whether or not they have:

A

vascular tissue – tubes for nutrient exchange with soil, and

photosynthetic products down from the photosynthetic

structures (usually leaves). Minimally, those vascular

cells include cells called tracheids

(so, plants are “non-vascular” or “vascular”)

seeds – seeds are embryos packaged with a supply

of nutrients, in a protective coat

(so, plants are “non-seed plants” or “seed plants”)

67
Q

What are the 3 non-vascular plants?

A

Liverworts

Mosses

Hornworts

68
Q

Notice as we walk through plant diversity, from non-vascular, to vascular non-seed, and to seed plants, is a trend towards ________ of the gametophyte generation.

A

reduction

69
Q

In nonvascular plants (which arose earlier), the gametophyte is

A

Larger, longer-lived, more self-sufficient than the sporophyte

70
Q

In vascular plants (which arose later) the sporophyte is

A

Larger, longer-lived, and more self-sufficient than the gametophyte

71
Q

Nonvascular plants are all __________

A

seedless

72
Q

Nonvascular plants are restricted to ________ habitats

A

Moist; sperm are flagellated, and require water to swim to the egg!

73
Q

What is the typical height of nonvascular plants?

A

very short

– they must be close to the soil since they don’t have a vascular system

74
Q

Nonvascular plants all have a _______ alternation of generations life cycle with the _________ generation dominant.

A

simple

gametophyte

75
Q

Go through the moss (nonvascular) life cycle

A
  1. Sporangium releases spores (1N)
  2. Spores land in moist place and undergo mitosis to form multicellular gametophyte (1N)
  3. Gametangia develop on the gametophytes (male or female)
  4. Sperm are released from the antheridium and must swim to the egg in the archegonium (WATER NECESSARY)
  5. The embryo (protected in the archaegonium) develops into a sporophyte (2N)
  6. In the sporangium (capsule), spores (1N) develop via meiosis
76
Q

In the moss life cycle (and that of other nonvascular plants), the __________ (1N stage) is long-lived and photosynthetic.

A

gametophyte

77
Q

Liverworts can reproduce asexually by:

A

fragmentation of the gametophyte

and

gemmae: lens-shaped clumps of cells in cups; raindrops striking the cup disperse the gemmae

78
Q

What are the 6 derived traits of vascular plants?

A
  1. A of G life cycle with a large, branching, nutritionally independent sporophyte generation
  2. Vascular system - consists of xylem (exchange nutrients) and phloem (photosynthesis)
  3. Roots - absorb water and nutrients
  4. Leaves - photosynthesis; microphylls or megaphylls
  5. Sporophylls - a modified leaf of a sporophyte that bears the sporangia

6.

79
Q

Compare microphylls and megaphylls leaves

A

microphylls - have a single strand of vascular tissue

megaphylls - have a branched system of vascular tissue

80
Q

The oldest vascular plants were __________; that is, they produced a single type of spore.

A

homosporous

– the spores produce one type of gametophyte that has both archegonium and antheridium

81
Q

__________ plants produce two types of spores.

A

Heterosporous

Produce megaspores and microspores

82
Q

Compare megaspores and microspores

A

Megaspores are produced in megasporangia and develop into female gametophytes (megagametophytes), which produce only eggs

Microspores are produced in microsporangia and develop into male gametophytes (microgametophytes), which produce only sperm.

83
Q

Heterospory evolved several times and is now found in _____ seed plants.

A

All

84
Q

In all seedless vascular plants, the large sporophyte is _______

– all require _______ for at least one part of the life cycle: for the flagellated, swimming sperm

A

dominant

water

85
Q

Lycophyta includes what 3 main groups?

A

Club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts

– Microphylls only.

– Form strobili - clusters of sporophylls

86
Q

Monilophyta includes what 3 main groups?

A

Ferns, horsetails and whisk ferns

87
Q

What does the life cycle of ferns look like?

A

– homosporous

– spores formed in sori - clusters of sporangia

– spores can disperse in the wind, and develop into

gametophytes far from the parent sporophyte

(fern spores disperse via catapults!)

–sperm must swim through water to reach the egg in the archegonium (true in all seedless plants!)

88
Q

What are the characteristics of horsetails?

A

– spores have elaters or four “sails”

– sporophylls form a cluster called a strobilus

(like in lycophytes); horsetails are homosporous

have silica in cell walls

– their leaves are simplified (reduced)

megaphylls

89
Q

Lycophytes and monilophytes are a __________ group

A

paraphyletic

90
Q

For whisk ferns, the _________ lacks any chlorophyll at all, and lives below ground.

A

gametophyte

91
Q

What are the 5 derived traits of all living seed plants?

A
  1. Reduced gametophytes - in evolution of land plants, trend towards reduction of the gametophyte generation
  2. Heterospory
  3. Ovules - megasporangium protected by integument
  4. Pollen - sporopollenin wall (secreted by the sporophyte) + microgametophyte (1N)
  5. Seeds - pollination occurs, egg is fertilized
92
Q

For _____________, the sporophyte is dominant, but the gametophyte is independent (doesn’t rely on the sporophyte).

A

seedless vascular plants

93
Q

The ovule consists of what 3 things:

A
  1. Integument (2N)
  2. Megasporangium (2N)
  3. Megaspore (1N)
94
Q

Inside the ovule, the megaspore develops into a ___________.

After fertilization, the ovule will develop into a ________.

A

megagametophyte - dependent on the parent sporophyte

seed

95
Q

Once a pollen grain lands on an ovule, it grows out a _________.

A

pollen tube

96
Q

The process of pollen grains being dispersed to a megagametophyte, growing towards it, and delivering a sperm nucleus to the egg is called ___________.

A

pollination

97
Q

How does a seed form?

A

– At fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed

– Zygote undergoes mitosis to form an embryonic sporophyte

– Growth suspended, embryo enters a dormant stage, with the end product being a multicellular seed

98
Q

What are the 3 different tissues of a seed from outside inward?

A
  1. Seed coat
  2. Haploid female gametophyte tissue
  3. Embryo
99
Q

Gymnosperms are seed plants that __________ form flowers.

A

DO NOT

100
Q

Name the 4 main gymnosperm clades

A

conifers – cones also called strobilae

gnetophytes – ephedrine

cycads – pollinated by insects

ginkgos – contain toxins

101
Q

The female (seed-bearing) cone is the ______________.

A

megastrobulis

102
Q

The female (seed-bearing) cone is the ___________.

A

microstrobilus

103
Q

Walk through a conifer life cycle

A

– wind carries pollen grains from the male cone to the female cone

– pollen tube elongates, enters ovule

– two sperm travel through the pollen tube: one fertilizes the egg, the other one degenerates

104
Q

Seed plants have a very reduced __________ stage.

A

gametophyte

105
Q

Angiosperms (flowing plants) are built of what 4 kinds of sporophylls (modified leaves)?

A
  1. Sepals (sterile)
  2. Petals (sterile)
  3. Stamen (produce microsporangia) - filamnt + anther
  4. Carpel (house ovules) stigma + style + ovary
106
Q

Compare perfect vs imperfect flowers

A

– Perfect flowers have both stamens and carpels

– Imperfect flowers have EITHER stamens and carpels, but not both

  • monoecious - single plant has both male and female imperfect flowers
  • dioecious (“two houses”) - a single plant has male OR female imperfect flowers, but not both
107
Q

Compare single flowers vs inflorescences

A

– single flowers - an isolated flower with its set of floral organs

– inflorescences - tight groups of flowers on the same plant

108
Q

Compare radial and bilateral symmetry

A

– Radially symmetric flowers - any cut through the central axis divides the flower into two ~equal halves

– Bilaterally symmetric - only one cut that will divide it into ~equal halves

109
Q

In angiosperm, the megagametophyte is composed of what seven cells?

A

– egg

– large central cell with two haploid nuclei

– five others

110
Q

In angiosperms, the microgametophyte delivers two sperms to the megagametophyte. What happens to these two sperms? What is this process called?

A

– One fertilizes the egg

– The other fuses with two 1N nuclei in the central cell, making a large triploid cell (3N)

Double fertilization

111
Q

In angiosperms, the triploid central cell develops into ________ tissue. The seed that results has what 3 layers of tissue?

A

endosperm

  1. Seed coat (2N)
  2. Endosperm tissue (3N)

Embryo (2N)

112
Q

Angiosperm embryos can have:

A

– monocots - one seed leaf

– dicots - two seed leaves

113
Q

In angiosperms, the ovary wall develops into a ______ after fertilization. Most fruits are simply the ovary wall surrounding one or more seeds. When it’s a fruit, that former ovary wall is called the ______________.

A

fruit

pericarp

– fruits protect seeds and

aid in seed dispersal

114
Q

_______ fruits develop from one carpel.

The pericarp (former ovary wall) has what three layers?

A

Simple

– exocarp (the skin)

– mesocarp (the fleshy, edible part)

– endocarp (the woody part of the pit)

115
Q

_________ fruits develop from a single flower that has multiple carpels.

A

Aggregate

116
Q

_______fruits form a cluster of separate flowers (each with its own carpel, or carpels) that merge during fruit development (e.g. pineapple).

A

Multiple

117
Q

_________ fruits include parts of the flower other than carpels.

A

Accessory

118
Q

What are the two main clades within angiosperms?

A

monocots - one cotyledon, parallel veins

eudicots - two cotyledon, netlike veins

119
Q

________ are the sister taxon to all the other living angiosperms.

A

Amborella

Biology 211 (5 decks)

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