Midterm Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
What is the actual definition of “a fact”?
A
A phenomenon or observation that is agreed upon by most observers
2
Q
What is the definition of a theory?
A
When a fact is commonly and widely believed it becomes a theory though it will never be 100% certain
3
Q
What are predictions resulting from theories called?
A
Hypothesis
4
Q
Datum (the plural of data) refers to….
A
information gathered by direct observation (of either a human or some measuring instrument)
5
Q
What is an Experimental Study?
A
Attempt to isolate the effect of one or more independent variable on a dependent variable (where the change in the dependent in explicitly caused by the independent variable)
6
Q
What is a Correlation Study?
A
Examine the relationships between variables
casual inferences cannot be drawn from correlation studies because they do not control all variables
7
Q
What is a Descriptive Study?
A
Studies that gather observed data without attempting to examine the relationships between variable
8
Q
Name the two Study Settings and which study methods they are usually used with?
A
Laboratory Settings (Experimental Studies)
Field Setting
(Correlational or Descriptive)
9
Q
What is the difference between the Observational Methods: Naturalistic Observation and Testing?
A
measuring with the senses or an instrument
vs
stimulating the animal/human to respond
10
Q
What is the Correlation Coefficient?
A
descriptive statistic that is used to illustrate the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables
11
Q
What are Inferential Statistics used for?
A
to determine how likely a hypothesis is to be true
12
Q
What is Cross Selection Design?
A
Studying the differences between age groups at a select time – all ages participating in the completiong of a certian task
13
Q
What is Longitudinal Design?
A
Studying that same group of children over years at a time (whether a year or over the period of a decade or more)
14
Q
What is Sequential Design?
A
A combination of Cross Section and Longitudinal: A group of varying ages being observed over a long period of time
15
Q
What were Sigmund Freud’s Three Components of Personality
A
Id.
Ego.
Superego.
16
Q
Describe the Id of Freud’s personality components
A
Represents a person’s basic urges and instincts
17
Q
Describe the Ego of Freud’s personality components
A
Represents the rational component of the mind (the mediator between conscience and basic urges)
18
Q
Describe the Superego of Freud’s personality components
A
Represents the conscience or the morality centre of the brain
19
Q
Describe Freudian Stages (3 points)
A
- Development progresses through different stages
- These stages exist universally
- failing a stage doesn’t mean you cannot pass to the next
20
Q
Describe Erikson’s general theory
A
- added adult stages to Freud’s 5
- put emphasis on the cultural
- stages don’t require completion before moving on (not entirely link – can return to a stage later on)
21
Q
Erikson: What is the Trust vs. Mistrust Erikson Stage? (0-1)
A
(0-1)
-responsive/caring vs unresponsive/uncaring parent
22
Q
Erikson: What is the Autonomy vs. Shame Erikson Stage? (2-3)
A
(2-3)
-Supportive vs. Lenient or Strict perents
23
Q
Erikson: What is the Initiative vs. Guilt Erikson Stage? (4-5)
A
(4-5)
- Completing task on their own vs. failing to do things on their own
ie. interacting socially, making friends
24
Q
Erikson: What is the Industry vs. Inferiority Erikson Stage?
A
(6-13)
- competence in comparison to others
- success vs. regular failure
25
Erikson: What is the Identity vs. Identity Diffusion Erikson Stage?
Adolescence
- developing an identity vs. not
- needs to explore, and commit
26
Erikson: What is the Intimacy vs. Isolation Erikson Stage?
Young Adult
| -becoming intimate with someone vs. being unable to to open themselves to another
27
Erikson: What is the Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson Stage?
Adult
- contributing vs. meaningless efforts
- whether their life has/or lacks meaning
28
Erikson: What is the Integrity vs. Despair Erikson Stage?
Old Age
| -meaningful/purposeful life vs. wasted
29
What is Pure Behaviourism versus Social Behaviourism?
- they are the way they behave
| - tempered by their environment
30
What is Operant Conditioning?
The reward vs. punishment theory
31
What theory of learning did Bandura prove?
Imitation theory
32
Who developed and what is SLT
Social Learning Theory - Bandura (context influences learning and behaviours)
33
What were the questions Bandura wanted to answer with the Bobo Doll
1. Does watching aggression cause an increase in aggressive behaviours
2. Were they imitating the exact behaviours or the aggression behind them
34
What approach did Jean Piaget take to theory?
Biological
35
What is Ontogeny?
Individual Development
36
What is Phylogeny?
Species Specific Development
37
What is a Scheme according to Piaget?
an organized pattern of behaviour or thinking
38
What approach did Lev Vygotsky take to theory?
Believed that cognitive development was a result of innate and evolved mechanisms that interacted with external (social) inputs
39
Describe Vygotsky's Sociocultural Perspective
- language is the gateway to social interactions
| - learning is a moment by moment process
40
What is the Microsystem?
people and objects in the immediate environment
| parents, siblings
41
What is the Mesosystem?
influences of microsystems on each other
| parents and sibling interactions
42
What is the Exosystem?
social environmental, and governmental forces that directly influence the individual
(ie. playgrounds, neighbourhoods)
43
What is the Macrosystem?
Subcultures and cultures in which the other 3 systems are present
(rural vs urban)
44
What is the Chronosystem?
How an environment changes over time
45
What were Urie Bronfengrenner's 5 theories in his Ecological Approach
```
Micro
Meso
Exo
Macro
Chrono
['cept they all end in system]
```
46
What did Lorenz theorize ethologically?
- genetically programmed behaviours
- imprinting
- coded animal behaviours in the display of emotions
47
What did Tinbergen develop as an ethological theorist?
Developed Ethology's 4 areas of inquiry
48
What were Tinbergen's 4 areas of inquiry?
1. Immediate (cause) -see through mechanics of the eye
2. Ontogenetic (individual development)
3. Functional (evolutional- need sight to find food)
4. Phylogenetic (a series of evolutionary steps made sight possible)
49
What is evolution?
an explanation of the diversity and function of all living things
50
What are the 5 components of Darwin's Evolutionary Theory?
1. More offspring are born than survive to reproduce
2. Variation of traits
3. Certain traits are more likely to pass on offspring (via genes)
4. Offspring are therefore more likely to inherit those traits
5. Environmental conditions have changed, leading to new species
51
What are the critics of E.P
1. does not reveal specific cognitive mechanisms
| 2. Depends on accurate guesses based on limited information
52
Why is Childhood considered an adaptation?
- surviving childhood was a crucial evolutionary pressure when 50% of children died before adulthood
- giving way to: limited attention spans, attachment to caregivers and curiosity
53
What is Genotype?
the genetic material an individual inherits
54
What is Phenotype?
the obervational expression of the genetic material an individual inherits
55
What are Genes?
sections of chromosomes that code for a particular protein sequence and/or have a particular effect on each other
56
Define Dominant Allele
is the form of the gene that is expressed if present
57
Define Recessive Allele
is not expressed if a dominant allele is present
58
Define Homozygous
A person who inherits two of the same alleles for a trait
59
Define Heterozygous
A person who inherits two different alleles for a trait
60
Example of a Recessive gene disorder
sickle cell anemia
61
Example of a single dominant gene dissorder
Huntingtons disease
62
Example of a sex linked inherited disorder
Hemophilia
63
Example of an error in mieosis gene disorder
down syndrome
64
Explain a gene disorder that has both deleterious effects and benefits
Sickle Cell Anemia
- A debilitating blood disorder when both alleles are present
- Protection against malaria, a blood parasite that can’t live and grow well in oval blood cells (in heterozygous)
65
What is Polygenic?
When traits are governed by more than one gene
66
What are Regulator genes?
-the continuous switching on and off of genes (originally thought to be useless) that underlie development across the lifespan
67
What is epigenesis?
how genes and the environment work together to produce/develop an organism
68
3 Points about the evolution of the brain
1. size has a direct correlation with cognition
2. Human brains have more cortical neurons then aminals
3. The size of the human cortex (deeper crevices and folds to allow more mass and neuronal communication)
69
Which theory of learning coincides with brain development?
Piaget's -- which coincides with the school system
70
When does the brain peak in growth? What occurs after?
18 months
-the brain loses its neurons, cutting out the connections that aren't vital for survival because more calories are used the more neurons that are being used
71
What is Neuroplasticity
the ability of the brain to change due to any change in environment, behaviour, or bodily injury
72
What are Piaget's structures/schemes?
- unobservable mental systems that underlie intelligence
| - are what change with development
73
What does Piaget believe about child development?
Children build their own representations of reality; these change with child’s (st)age
74
Assimilation?
is the incorporation of new information into existing schemas as well as the active representation of new stimuli
75
Accommodation?
is the rearranging of previous ideas so that they incorporate the new information
76
Equilibration?
- the organizations attempt to keep schemas in balance with new information
77
Piaget's Summary of Development?
New information causes disequilibrium, motivating the child to restore equilibrium by assimilating the information, and then accommodating existing information to fit the new information leading to a new organization of thought within the child
78
Piaget's stage approach:
1. Each stage is a structured whole in equilibrium
2. New stage derives from previous stage, and prepares for the next stage
3. The order of stages is sequential
4. Stages are universal
5. Each stage has an initial transition phase
79
(Piaget's) Sensorimotor Stage? Birth to 2
Birth to 2 years, focus is on learning the environment and how to interact with it
There are six substages
80
(Piaget's) Preoperational Stage? 2-7
Age 2 – 7
- marked by the emergence of language and symbolism, but also by the use of perception rather than higher thought or logic
- Egocentrism
- lack the knowledge that something stays the same despite perceptual changes
81
(Piaget's) Concrete Operational Stage? 7-12
Ages 7-12
- Children understand operations, but not the underlying reasons behind them (that water becomes ice)
- Pass tests of conservation and egotism, but tend to fail tests of abstract logic and reasoning
82
(Piaget's) Formal Operational Stage? 12+
Ages 12+
- Child can now understand and use abstract reasoning and formal logic
- Achieving this stage requires Western culture
83
What are some of Piaget's Contributions?
1. Founded field of cognitive development
2. Influence systems of education (material matched to age/stage)
3. Drew attention to child development
84
What are some of Piaget's Problems?
1. overestimated adult performance
| 2. recent studies have demonstrated that many of his tests tested performance skills, not mental competence
85
Vygotsky/Socioculturalv Perspective
1. Cognitive development is a function of the culture in which one is raised
2. Children learn to think by interacting with:
(their own thoughts, their peers, and especially, with parents)
3. Does not focus on stages, domain vs. general
86
Zone of Proximal Development
- A child can only learn new knowledge that is within reach of their current knowledge and this can be “extended” if someone helps them to understand the new knowledge
87
Scaffolding
Scaffolding occurs when the more experienced partner reworks the new knowledge into something that’s easier to learn (slowly withdrawn from the child)
88
Meta-attention
the knowledge of one’s attentional, concentration, or focus ability
89
Implicit Vs. Explicit Memory
Implicit memory develops earlier, and is more robust in terms of resisting brain injury -- is evolutionarily older than explicit memory
Explicit memory is thought to be dependent on hippocampus development (index for long-term memory) and also depends on language
90
Metamemory is
the knowledge of one’s memory capacity in terms of size, speed, and accuracy
91
What is Infantile Amnesia and why does it occur?
- encoding differences from child to adult where a sense of self is missing
- young children have poor long-term encoding/encode differently from adults
92
Describe language Semanticity?
language represents a form of patterned information (each individual word contains information)
93
Describe language Displacement?
language is independent of time, so you can talk about past, present, and future (you can discuss language independently)
94
Describe language Duality?
language is represented on two levels: the sounds of the language and its underlying meaning (both the structure Blue and meaning Bleu)
95
Phonological Development
Phonological development refers to learning the sounds of a language
96
Morphological Development
Free morphemes stand alone (talk), bound morphemes attach to free morphemes (ed) -- children learn rules for attaching free morphemes to bounds morphemes (adding “ed” to “talk”)
97
Syntactic Development
-rules of grammar — crucial for understanding language
-How words are arranged into sentences
E.g. “No drink milk.” evolve to “Drink no milk.” then adult way
-formulating passive sentence
98
Semantic Development
Semantics refer to a word’s meaning — the information you get from a word
99
The holophrastic period
children don't blindly learn words and sounds — but pick and chose in order to shape their environment (learning more common things (mom and dad) and nouns before social and functional terms)
100
Taxonomic assumption
words can be generalized to a group of things
| dog, a german shepherd and a bear cub can all be associated with the term dog
101
Mutual exclusivity assumption
different words refer to different things
(this is a dog, this is a german shepherd, this is a bear, then the cat can’t be any of those things and must be something else)
102
Whole object assumption
a new word applies to whole object
| when you say dog you mean the whole thing not just the tail
103
Over/under-extensions of words
Applying a word to either too big of a category or too little a category
(over-extensions are sometimes cues for scaffolding assistance – help the child narrow down what something is)
104
What are NLC's
Natural Language Categories
are groupings of words along a semantic gradient
(german shepherds are dogs, dogs are canines, canines are mammals, etc.)
105
Pragmatics Development
refers to how language is actually used, particularly in social situations -- a response may be different in different contexts
106
Describe the Nativist/Chomsky Theory of language development?
- there is a deep structure that underlies all languages
| - processes incoming stimuli and detects underlying patterns
107
Nativist Theory of grammar development supports?
-Complex language is found only in humans
-Common to all healthy humans
-Similarities in all human language grammars, even those that aren’t verbal
(Nicaraguan sign language)
108
Describe Lenneberg's critical period for language development
- Language-deprivation in childhood produces non-optimal language development despite intensive learning efforts
- Differences in grammatical competency based on age of language acquisition
109
Social Interactionist Language theory?
-emphasize social environment
-optimizes language learning by emphasizing contrasts, differences, and meanings
(children do not learn extra languages through passive learning (e.g., TV)
110
Which theorist believed in stages?
Piaget
111
Which theorist believed in continuous development?
Vygotsky
112
Which theorist developed the ZPD and Scaffolding?
Vygotsky
