Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
What do personality scales measure?
A
Motives, interests, values and attitudes
2
Q
What is the psychometric approach?
A
Standard approach to measuring
3
Q
What is reliability?
A
Whether or not a test can be taken or done multiple times with the same or very similar results
4
Q
What is validity?
A
Is the test measuring what it’s supposed to be measuring
5
Q
What are the three types of validity and what do they mean?
A
- Content validity: is it actually based on the right stuff
- Criterion-related validity: does it predict how you will do in a given field
- Construct validity: does the test relate to the construct
6
Q
What is a positive correlation? A negative one?
A
Positive: two variables co vary in the same direction
Negative: two variables covary in opposite directions
7
Q
How do you determine the strength of a correlation?
A
Closer it is to -1 or 1 the stronger the relationship
8
Q
What must reliability estimates for psychological tests?
A
Minimum of moderately high correlation
9
Q
Give an example of criterion related validity
A
A psychologist develops a pilot aptitude test. If this had good validity than those who score high on test would also preform well in the pilot training program
10
Q
What did sir Francis Galton do?
A
Hereditary genius
- researched intelligence and noticed it ran in families over generations
- coined nature vs nurture and defined and tested intelligence
11
Q
What was the problem with galtons hypothesis?
A
Money and access to resources also runs in families allowing generations in that family to do better
12
Q
What did Alfred Binet and Theodore sinon do?
A
Were asked to develop a test to determine kids who are struggling in school and how to improve education
Developed the Binet-simon intelligence scale based on mental age
13
Q
What did Lewis Terman do?
A
Developed the Stanford Binet intelligence scale
Used the intelligence quotient (IQ) = mental age/actual age x100
This made it possible to compare scores of different age groups
14
Q
What did David wechsler do?
A
Developed the wechsler adult intelligence scale
Scale was made for adults and did non verbal testing as well
15
Q
What did Charles spearman conclude?
A
Found that specific mental talents were highly intercorrelated
Concluded that all cognitive abilities share a common core, which he labelled g for general mental ability
Developed the rational behind IQ tests
Uses factor analysis
16
Q
What is factor analysis?
A
Look at variables and the ones that are highly correlated probably have a common influence
17
Q
What was guilford’s model of mental abilities?
A
Concluded that intelligence is made up of many separate abilities
May have as many as 150 distinct mental abilities that can be characterized in terms of the operations, contents, and products of intellectual activity
18
Q
Describe the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test?
A
Divided into scales that yield separate verbal and performance IQ scores
Verbal scale consists of six subtexts and the performance scale of five
19
Q
What is exceptional reliability?
A
Correlations into the .90s
20
Q
What is qualified validity?
A
Valid indicators of academic/verbal intelligence, not intelligence in a truly general sense
21
Q
What are some correlations of the IQ test?
A
.4 to .5 with school success but this could be due to drive and work ethic as well as support
.6 to .8 with number of years in school but if kids are doing well they are more likely to continue
22
Q
What are the three types of mental ability tests and what do they measure?
A
- Intelligence: measure core definition of general intelligence
- Apptitude: potential for achievement in an area
- Achievement tests: current achievement
23
Q
What were the three categories of intelligence according to stern berg??
A
- Verbal
- Practical/street smarts
- Social/interpersonal skills
24
Q
How are intellectual disability and mental retardation diagnosed?
A
Based on IQ and adaptive testing
IQ of 2 or more SD below mean
Have adaptive skill deficits
Originated before 18
25
What are the 4 levels of intellectual disability?
Mild, moderate, severe and profound
26
What causes intellectual disability?
```
Environmental
- extremely deprived environment
Biological
- chromosomal abnormality
- oxygen deprivation
- brain injury
```
27
How are social class and intellectual disability connected?
Severe forms are distributed pretty evenly across the social classes, showing a product of genetics
Mild forms are greatly elevated in the lower social classes, showing a product of environment
28
What is the identification issue with giftedness?
In an ideal world, wouldn't use IQ test to identify
| Can be gifted in different areas
29
What is the definition of giftedness?
IQ 2 SD above mean standard
30
What are some stereotypes of giftedness?
Weak, socially inept, emotionally troubled
Lewis Trumen largely contradicted these
Ellen winner found that the stereotypes were present in those who were profoundly gifted
31
What was renzullis idea of success?
Intersection of 3 factors: creativity, IQ, and motivation
32
What was simontons view of success?
Drudge theory and inborn talent
Not enough to be born of skill
Drudge: always working to improve your ability
Extreme motivation
33
What is hidden gifted?
Incredibly smart but preform poorly academically
34
How did they study heredity as a determinant of intelligence?
Family and twin studies: found that greater genetic similarity is associated with greater similarity in IQ, suggesting
Heritability estimates: an estimate of the portion of variation in a trait determined by heredity
Range between a high of 80% and a low of 40%
35
How did they study the effect of environment on IQ?
Adoption studies: measured adopted child and IQ of parents (adoptive vs biological)
Cumulative deprivation hypothesis (orphanage study and head start program)
The Flynn effect
36
What are orphanage studies and head start programs?
Orphanage studies:
- looked for orphanages with deprived environments
- found that they suffer in intellectual development
- saw increase in IQ scores when removed to better environment
Head start program:
- removed kids at early age and placed them in program
- showed a steady, constant growth that plateaued around 12
37
What is the Flynn effect?
Data from IQ scored 1915-2000
Dramatic increase in average IQ scores
Indicate our environment is changing
38
What is the reaction range?
Heredity sets a limit on ones intellectual potential while the quality of ones environment influences where one scores within this range
People raised in enriched environment would score near the top of their range
Explains how people with similar genetic potential can be quite different in intelligence and how two people from same environment can score quite differently
39
What are selective breeding studies? What are the problem with them?
Focuses on evolving a certain trait by breeding only those with the trait
Rats and mice selectively bred for intelligence
Bred out not so intelligent trait
Implies intelligence = value
Can't infer that rats are the same as humans
40
What are some genetic explanations for cultural differences in IQ?
Arthur Jensen- asserted intelligence is genetic and we cannot escape our destiny
Herrnstein and murry- the bell curve (paper)
Rushton- race, evolution, and behaviour (paper): ranks races according to intelligence
41
What are some environmental explanations for cultural differences in IQ?
Kamins cornfield analogy- socioeconomic disadvantage: poor environment
Steele- stereotype vulnerability: can't translate material and ideas, skill develop in different areas in cultures
Cultural bias on IQ tests
42
How did they study stereotype vaulter ability?
Made 2 groups
Told one group to push button 500 times and they would get tired around 500
Told the second group to push it 1000 times and would get tired around 1000
First group complained about being tired at 500 where as second group said nothing
Idea influenced results
43
What direction is the study and assessment of intelligence now heading?
Increased emphasis on specific abilities
- beyond g
- fluid vs crystallized intelligence
Biological indexes of intelligence
- reaction times and inspection time
- has found brain development indicates specific abilities
Cognitive conceptualization of intelligence
- sternberg triarchy theory and successful intelligence
Expanding concept of intelligence
- gardeners multiple intelligence
- golemans emotional intelligence
Measuring emotional intelligence
44
How does the amount of white and Gray matter influence intelligence?
White= myelin
More = more efficient information transfer
More Gray = more processing abilities
Overall high cognitive abilities
45
When is someone emotionally intelligent?
In tune and in touch with others emotions
Able to understand and label your own emotions
Able to control your emotions
People with low emotional intelligence have trouble coping in society
46
What is the correlation between creativity and IQ?
No correlation as creativity isn't tested
High correlation between mental disorders and creativity
Born creative = not appreciated, understood, unsuccessful = depressed
Depressed = have more experience and looking for an outlet = creative
47
What is sternbergs triarchy theory of intelligence?
Believes that intelligence consists of three parts: contextual subtheory, experimental subtheory, componential subtheory
Believed cognitive processes fall into three categories: meta components, knowledge acquisition, and preformance
All three contribute to three aspects of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical
48
What are gardeners 8 intelligences?
```
Logical-mathematical
Linguistic
Musical
Spatial
Bodily kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
```
49
Define motives
Needs, wants, desires leading to goal-directed behaviour
50
What is the drive theories of motives? Give and example
Seeking homeostasis
All organisms seek balance
Thirst = out of balance so seeking a drink creates balance
51
When do the drive theories not work?
Ex eating disorders
| Feel hunger but no motivation to resolve it
52
What are the incentive theories of motivation?
Motives are regulated by external stimuli
53
What are the evolutionary theories of motivation?
Motivation to maximize reproductive success
Ex eating to survive
Need to be successful, dominant, and aggressive
Need for social interaction
54
What are the two broad classes of motives in humans? Give examples
Biological: hunger, thirst, sexual, sleep
Social: achievement, nurturance, order, play, affiliation
55
What are the biological factors regulating hunger and eating?
Brain regulation
Glucose and digestive regulation
Hormonal regulation
56
Describe the brain regulation of hunger.
Uses the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, arcuate nucleus (contains neurons sensitive to hunger), and Neurotransmitters such as neuropetide Y, serotonin (imbalance associated with eating disorders), and ghrelin (secreted by stomach when empty)
57
What is the glucostatic theory?
Changes in glucose levels effect our feelings of hunger
58
How does hormonal regulation motivate hunger?
Insulin signals hunger
| An increase in leptin decreases hunger
59
What was previously believed about the hypothalamus? What is now believed?
Used to believe that the lateral and ventromedial areas were brains on and off switch for eating
Recent research suggests that paraventricular nucleus may be more crucial to regulation and thinking in terms of neural circuits rather than anatomical centres makes more sense
60
What are some environmental factors affecting the motivation of hunger?
Learned preferences and habits
Food related cues
Stress
61
What are learned preferences and habits in terms of eating?
What we are exposed to and taught in our culture
| When we eat and what we eat
62
What are food related cues?
Appearance, odour, effort required
63
How is stress a motivator for hunger?
There is a link between arousal/negative emotion and overeating
May cause over or undereating
64
What are some explanations of obesity?
```
Evolutionary
Genetic
Concept of set point and settling point
Dietary restraints
Eating disorders
```
65
Describe obesity in terms of evolution
At some point in time, good availability was not constant
People are prewired to eat as much as possible when food is available because it might not be later
Now food is always available and it's problematic
66
Describe obesity in terms of genetic predisposition
There are genes that predispose people to obesity
Studied through adoption studies and the mass-body index
Was a high correlation between the body mass of identical twins raised apart and those raised together
67
Describe the concept of set point and settling point
Set: have a natural set weight and very little ability to change it. Even when we diet and change our eating habits, when we eat normally again the weight will return
Settling: body weight naturally drifts but can be adjusted by changing key variables. Can eat normally after gaining or losing weight
68
What are some factors affecting sexual motivation and behaviour?
```
Hormonal regulation: estrogen, androgen, testosterone
Evolutionary factors
Parental investment theory
Gender differences in mate preferences
Pornography
```
69
How do evolutionary factors affect sexual motivation and behaviour?
Engage in sex and preferences are therefore survival
| Engage in behaviours that maximize reproductive success
70
What are some gender differences in mate preferences?
Men prefer more partners
Women prefer lifetime partners
Men think more about sex than women
71
What are some issues surrounding pornography?
Concerns with availability
There does not appear to be a link between sexual offending except with that with aggressive or violent themes
Increased exposure to these seems to lead to a more accepting thinking and less sympathies to rape victims
72
What are the stages to the human sexual response and who made them?
Masters and Johnson
Excitement- sharp physiological changes
Plateau- heightened change but no longer increasing
Orgasm- peak of sexual activity
Resolution- physiologically unresponsive (more in men)
73
What is the parental investment theory?
Basic differences between males and females in parental investment have great adaptive significance and lead to gender differences in mating propensities and preferences
74
What is the difference between males and females according to the parental investment theory?
Males have minimal time, energy or risk and therefore have more reproductive success by having many partners. Prefer youth and attractiveness as it means healthy and more chance of offspring survival
Women give a lot of energy in reproduction and therefore interested in commited sex. What males with a income, status, and drive
75
What is meant by saying sexual orientation is a continuum?
Many people have times when they are exploring their sexuality and may change orientation many times
76
What experiment did Clark and hadfield run in terms of sexual motivation?
Had average looking female ask male stranger to come to their home and have sex. 75% said yes.
Did the same with males and no females said yes
77
What is the prevailing theory explaining homosexuality?
Biological
Occurs when prenatally exposed to hormones entering through the placenta
Brain development is altered therefore altering sexuality
Found a large correlation between identical twins that were raised together and apart
78
What was freuds view on homosexuality?
Occurs at very distinct stages
| Children will identify with one parent so other parent would be sexually attracted to them
79
What was the behaviourism view of sexuality?
Learn from environment, role models, and conditioning
80
What is affiliation?
The need for social bonds
81
What is ostracism?
Ignored or excluded and can have an extreme influence on our lives
82
What is the fear of rejection?
Will go to extreme lengths to obey and avoid rejection
83
What is the achievement motive?
The need to excel
- work harder and more persistent
- delay gratification
- pursue competitive careers
- influences by situation
- measured using the thematic apperception test (interpret photos)
- generally won't score high in social if high in achievement
84
What are some determinants of achievement behaviour?
Need for achievement
Fear of failure
Perceived probability of failure on a specific test
Incentive value of failure on specific test
Incentive value of success on specific task
Perceived probability of success on specific test
85
What are the three components of emotional experience?
Cognitive component
Physiological component
Behavioural component
86
Describe the cognitive component of the emotional experience
How you assess an emotion and what sets it off
The subjective conscious experience
Used in positive psychology which challenges your perceptions and changes your cognition
87
Describe the physiological component of the emotional experience
Bodily arousals that are used in lie detector tests
Red face, raised blood pressure
Affective neuroscience
Caused by sympathetic autonomic nervous system
88
Describe the behavioural component of the emotional experience
Characteristic overt expressions
Infants use them to communicate
Generally nonverbal
Inate endowed to communicate nonverbally as well as ability to read primary emotions on faces
89
What is the facial feed back theory?
If you change you facial expression your emotion will change with it
How you hold your body can affect your emotion
90
What does the amygdala do with fear?
Sensory inputs that trigger fear arrive in the thalamus and then are routes alone a fast pathway directly to the amygdala and along a slow pathway that allows the cortex time to think about the situation
Uses fast pathway then protein tail threat to life and elicits the autonomic arousal and hormonal response
91
What did ekman and Friesen find?
Found that people in highly disparate cultures show fair agreement on the emotions portrayed in photos
Suggest that facial expressions of emotions may be universal and that they have a strong biological basis
92
What is the James-Lang theory of emotion?
Feel afraid because pulse is racing
Autonomic response first
Ex. Dog jumps out, body responds, and make appraisal
93
What is the cannon-bard theory of emotion?
Thalamus sends signal simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system
94
What is schacter's two factor theory of emotion?
Look to external cues to decide what to feel
| Autonomic response first but then base appraisal off the environment
95
What is the evolutionary theory of emotion?
Innate reactions with little cognitive interpretation
| Not always true as we can change someone's reactions by changing their cognition
96
What are primRy and secondary emotions?
Primary: emotions we are born with
Ex. Fear, anger, joy, disgust, interest, surprise
Secondary: learned emotions
97
What are some things that are largely I correlated to happiness?
```
Income: some correlation but not direct causal effect
Age
Parenthood
Intelligence
Attractiveness
```
98
What are some things that are moderately correlated with happiness?
Physical health
Good social relationships
Religious faith
Culture
99
What things are strongly correlated with happiness?
Love
Marriage/good relationship
Work or school satisfaction
Personality
100
What are the stages of prenatal development?
Germinal stage: first 2 weeks
- contraception, implantation, formation of placenta
Embryonic stage: 2 weeks - 2 months
- formation of viral organs and systems
Fetal stage: 2 months - birth
- bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply
- age of viability (22 weeks)
101
How is maternal drug use a factor in prenatal development?
Can cause fetal alcohol syndrome
| Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs
102
How is maternal illness and exposure to toxins a factor in prenatal development?
Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, aids, severe influenza can change development
Prevention through guidance
103
How is maternal nutrition and emotions a factor in prenatal development?
Malnutrition linked to an increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology
Could be hormonal or environmental
104
What is the cephalocaudal trend?
Fetus devolves head to foot
| Brain develops first
105
What is the proximodistal trend?
Organs develops center outward
| Limbs develop last
106
What is maturation?
Gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint
Environment can overwrite this before or after birth
Ex when we start walking
107
What are developmental norms?
Median age that a child begins something
| Cultural variations
108
What is a longitudinal study?
Done over a period of time with the same sample
Water to measure might change
Environment factors change
People drop out resulting in potentially bias sample
109
What is a cross-sectional study?
Done all at one time using seperate samples
| Cohort effect: testing might not work for all groups in sample
110
What was Thomas, chess, and birch view on temperament?
```
3 basic tempermental style
Easy - 40%
Slow to warm up - 15%
Difficult - 10%
Mixed - 35%
Stable over time and seemed to be a good predictor of adult personality
```
111
What is kagen and snowmans view on temperment?
Inhibited - 15-20%
Uninhibited - 25-30%
Stable over time and appears to be genetically based
112
What are some theories of separation anxiety?
Freud: attached to person providing good
Harlow: more to it, filling emotional need (monkey experiment)
Bolby: evolutionary purpose, babies are born with ability to make connections, adults are born with responses to nurture
113
How did ainsworth study separation anxiety?
Used the strange situation
Looked at how child behaved with mother, with mother and stranger, and when mother left then alone with he stranger
She wanted to see distress when the mom leaves and calm down when she returns
114
What did ainsworth find?
Found reactions fell into four categories
Secure: what she wanted to see
Anxious-ambivalent: distressed when mom leaves and remain so when she returns
Avoidant: not distressed at all
Disorganized/disoriented: no emotional reaction towards primary caregiver except confusion (concerning)
115
What are the three components of stage theory?
Progress through stages in order
Progress through stages relative to age
Major discontinuities in development
116
What did Erik erikson suggest for the development of personality?
Eight stages spanning the lifespan
| Psychosocial crisis determining balance between opposing polarities in personality
117
What are the eight stages of eriksons theory?
1. Trust vs mistrust
2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt
3. Initiative vs guilt
4. Industry vs inferiority
5. Identity vs confusion
6. Intimacy vs isolation
7. Generative vs self-absorption
8. Integrity vs dispair
118
What is Jean Piaget stage theory of cognitive development?
Assimilation/accomidation
| 4 stages and major milestone
119
What are the 4 stages im of Piaget theory on cognitive development?
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
120
Describe the sensorimotor stage
Up to 2 years
Schemes are very basic
Object permanence - still exists if not visible
121
Describe the preoperational stage
Ability to think in terms of symbols
Haven't masters irreversibility
Centration: in ability to see larger picture
Egocentrism: aren't able to see another child's perspective
122
Describe the concrete operational stage
Decentration
Reversibility
Conservation - even though the appearance changes the quantity does not
123
Describe the formal operational stage
Abstraction
| Logical systematic thinking
124
What was lev vygotskys theory of cognitive development?
Relays on others being there to assist the child when they are struggling
Zone of proximal development: area of cognitive growth
Scaffolding: assistance that allows us to build on knowledge
125
What are critical periods in development?
Limited time span when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences
126
What are sensitive periods?
Responsive to something during a specific time frame
If occurs later will still develop but not to full extent
If severely deprived for more than six months within first 24 months = no hope
Evident in language development
127
How did they study habituation and dis habituation?
Got a normal baseline
Presented infant with new info, causing state of dishabituation, causing reaction increase
Eventually reaction will go back to baseline = habituated
Infant has memory
128
What is the theory of the mind?
Understanding how others think
| Their beliefs are your beliefs
129
What was kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning?
Reasoning as opposed to behaviour
Gave moral dilemmas and measured the nature and progression of moral reasoning
3 levels each with two sub levels
130
What are the levels and sub levels of kohlbergs theory?
```
Preconventional:
1. Punishment and orientation
2. Naive reward orientation
Conventional:
3. Good boy/girl orientation
4. Authority orientation
Post conventional
5. Social contract orientation
6. Individual principles and conscience orientation
```
131
Describe the adolescent brain
```
Lots of changes in the brain
Before emotions are more active
Frontal cortex begins to develop
More sleep because 80% of growth hormone secreted while sleeping
More white and Gray matter
```
132
What occurs during puberty?
Secondary sexual characteristics
Primary sexual characteristics
Maturstion
133
Describe early vs late maturation
Early is generally advantageous for males because means more physically advanced
Females are the opposite, feel different than the group
Studies found that girls with father problems enter puberty earlier
134
What is James Marcia's theory of identity?
4 identity statuses
1) identify diffusion: not something that has been considered
2) foreclosure: adopted from those around us
3) moratorium: identity crisis - go into the world and encounter things against our ideas
4) identity achievement: know who you are
135
What are somethings that occur in adulthood?
```
Personality development
Social development and family life
Physiological changes
Neural changes
Cognitive changes
```
136
What are the parts to the five factor model of personality?
```
Extraversion
Neuroticism
Openness to experience
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
```
137
What is freud's psychoanalytic theory?
Structure of personality:
Id: pleasure principle - born with, me me me
Ego: reality principle - how you actually appear
Super ego: morality - develops based on influence
Levels of awareness: conscious, unconscious, preconscious
138
Define conscious, unconscious and preconscious
Conscious: contact with outside world
Unconscious: difficult to retrieve material, well below the surface of awareness
Preconsciousness: material just beneath the surface of awareness
139
What is freuds model of personality dynamics?
Unconscious conflicts among the id, ego and superego sometimes lead to anxiety
Discomfort may lead to the use of defence mechanisms which may temporarily relieve anxiety
140
What are the 8 defence mechanisms?
```
Repression
Projection
Displacement
Reaction formation
Regression
Rationalization
Identification
Sublimation
```
141
What is displacement?
Diverting emotional feelings from their original source to a substitute target
142
What is reaction formation?
Behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of ones true feelings
143
What is identification?
Bolstering self esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group
144
What is sublimation?
Occurs when unconscious, unacceptable impulses are channelled into socially acceptable, perhaps even admirable, behaviour
145
What are freuds psychosexual stages?
Oral: mouth must wean
Anal: Anus (expelling and retaining feces) toilet training
Phallic: gentials (masturbation) coping with Oedipal crisis
Latency: sexually repressed expanding social contacts
Genital: genitals (sex) extabishing intimate relationships
146
What is fixation?
Excessive gratification or frustration
Get stuck on stage
Ex stuck on oral stage, smoker or fat
147
What was Carl Jungs psychodynamic theory?
Analytical psychology
Have a personal and collective unconscious from across human species
Archetypes: shows in art and literature
Introversion/extroversion: identified them
148
What was Alfred adlers psychodynamic theory?
```
Individual psychology
Striving for superiority
Compensation
Inferiority complex/overcompensation
Birth order
```
149
What are some pros and cons of the paychodynamic perspectives?
```
Pros:
- insight regarding the unconscious, role of internal conflict, importance of early childhood experiences
Cons:
- poor test ability
- inadequate empirical base
- sexist views
```
150
What are some behavioural perspectives of personality?
```
Skinners ideas applied to personality
- conditioning and response tendencies
- environmental determinism
Bandits social cognitive theory
- social learning: cognitive processes and reciprocal determinism, observational learning, models, self-efficacy
Mischels view
- person-situation controversy: change how we act in different situations
- interactionsl approach
```
151
What are the pros and cons of behavioural perspectives?
```
Pros
- based on rigorous research
- insights into effects of learning and environmental factors
Cons:
- over dependence on animal research
- fragmented view of personality
- dehumanizing views
```
152
What are some humanistic views of personality?
Carl Rogers
- person centred theory: self concept (conditional/unconditional positive regard, in congruence and anxiety)
Abraham Maslow
- self actualization theory
- hierarchy of needs: the healthy personality
153
What are the pros and cons of human perspectives?
```
Pros:
- importance of subjective views
- development of the idea of self concept
- optimistic growth and health oriented approach paved way for positive psychology
Cons:
- poor test ability
- unrealistic view of human nature
- inadequate evidence
```
154
What are some biological perspectives of personality?
Eysencks theory
- three higher-order traits determined by genes (extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism)
Behavioural genetics and personality
- novelty seeking and genetics
- twin studies
The evolutionary approach
- traits conducive to reproductive fitness
