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EEB267 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Autapomorphy

A

Allows us to identify a taxa as distinct from all other taxa, but gives us no information regarding how it is related to other taxa

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2
Q

Synapomorphy

A

A character that is shared uniquely between a group of taxa; allows us to cluster group of organisms into closely-related clades

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3
Q

Monophyletic Group

A

Includes an ancestor and all of its descendants

GOOD :D

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4
Q

Paraphyletic Group

A

Begins with an ancestor but does not include all of its descendants

E.g. separation of Reptilia and Aves into two separate classes

BAD!!

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5
Q

Chordata

A

Synapomorphies:

  • Dorsal hollow nerve cord
  • Notochord
  • Post-anal tail

Other features:
- Pharyngeal slits

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6
Q

Pharyngeal slits

A

Depending on the group, can be used for feeding or respiration

Passageway between external environment and the pharynx
- Formed when inward ectoderm buds and outward endoderm buds meet

Not a synapomorphy for the Chordata but are a very important part of their evolution

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7
Q

Dorsal hollow nerve cord

A

Together with the brain, later forms the central nervous system

Formed by the ectoderm, which rolls and forms a hollow tube

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8
Q

Notochord

A

Semi-rigid, cartilaginous rod

  • Semi-fluid filled cells
  • Flexible from side to side but not compressible dorso-ventrally

Functions as support, site for muscle attachment

Becomes the backbone (intervertebral discs anyway) in later taxa
- Is present in embryonic stages

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9
Q

Post-anal tail

A

Functions as a propulsive mechanism

Is exactly what it sounds like… tail posterior to the anus

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10
Q

Cephalochordata

A

Lancelets & amphioxus
Within Chordata
- Min. 540 MYA
- Marine

Characteristics:

  • Notochord runs to the tip of the head
  • Single blood vessel that pumps in place of a heart
  • Single photoreceptive frontal eye (can determine differences between light/dark)
  • Undergo metamorphosis –> ciliated, asymmetrical larvae produce filter-feeding adult
  • Have two sexes
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11
Q

Olfactores

A

Group within Chordata, contains:

  • Urochordata
  • Cristozoa

Synapomorphies:

  • Numerous molecular traits
  • No good morphological synapomorphies
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12
Q

Urochordata

A

Within Olfactores
Tunicates, sea squirts
- ~520 MYA
- Marine

Autapomorphies:

  • Heart reverses direction of beating every few minutes
  • Presence of cellulose in the tunic (body covering); genes for production thought to be horizontally transferred from plants through bacteria

Characteristics:

  • Unusually quick mtDNA evolution
  • Radical metamorphosis of larvae –> free-swimming & non-feeding larvae with all chordate traits –> lose notochord and tail, dorsal hollow nerve cord reduced, increased paired pharyngeal slits –> sessile, filter-feeding, hermaphroditic adult
  • Can be solitary or colonial depending on species
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13
Q

Importance of basal chordates

A
  • Bioaccumulators
  • “Nature’s filters”
  • Invasive tunicates can outcompete endemic benthic species and parasitize shellfish farms
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14
Q

Vulnerability of basal chordates

A
  • Some are eaten (amphioxus)
  • Inshore species susceptible to habitat disturbance
  • Used in medicine (tunicate substances may be anti-inflammatory, antiviral for herpes, and antitumor)

None have been assessed for conservation purposes yet

Major threat probably habitat disturbance/degradation

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15
Q

Cristozoa

A

Group within Oflactores, contains:

  • Haikouella t
  • Vertebrata

Synapomorphies:

  • Proto-vertebrae
  • True gills
  • Two eyes
  • Olfactory lobes
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16
Q

Proto-vertebrae

A

Complete notochord has irregular cartilaginous blocks in places

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17
Q

True gills

A
  • Larger pharyngeal openings
  • Cartilaginous bars in pharyngeal openings are much larger and stronger
  • Muscles pump water through openings
  • Cilia replaced by longer, stronger filaments
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18
Q

Haikouella

A

Group within Cristozoa
Extinct

Characteristics:

  • Capable of swimming for longer periods of time
  • Could select and track prey using sight and smell
  • Few large tentacles allow it to move larger food items into mouth
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19
Q

Vertebrata

A

Group within Cristozoa, contains:

  • Cyclostomata
  • Gnathostomata

Synapomorphy: skull

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20
Q

Cyclostomata

A

Group within Vertebrata, contains:
- Myxiniformes
- Petromyzontiformes
Round-mouthed fishes

Synapomorphy: white blood cells have unique antigen receptor genes (makes immune system very different)

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21
Q

Myxiniformes

A

Group within Cyclostomata
Hagfishes
- Marine

Autapomorphies:

  • Ability to absorb amino acids from decaying animals directly through skin/gills
  • Slime glands –> ejected mucins absorb water, attach to slime proteins, slows down the movement of water and makes slippery surface that is slime; is ejected on predators to clog gills and disable/distract the animal
  • Knotting behaviour –> ties self in knot, moves knot down body to clean, tear flesh, and escape from predators

Characteristics:

  • Poorly developed eyes (absent in some species)
  • Well-developed chemical and touch senses
  • Mainly scavengers, some predation
  • Touch-sensitive tentacles around mouth
  • Tongue has two rows of keratinized tooth-like structures that ras away flesh
  • Produce large, yolk-filled eggs
  • No metamorphosis: hatched animals are small adults
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22
Q

Petromyzontiformes

A

Group within Cyclostomata
Lampreys
- Marine or freshwater

Characteristics:

  • Many spp. are external parasites of fish as adults, some are predators/scavengers, some do not feed at all
  • Adults have oral disc full of keratinized tooth-like structures and rasping tongue (w/ same structures)
  • Single nostril
  • Well-developed eyes
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23
Q

Petromyzontiformes - Life cycle

A

Ammocoete larvae hatch, burrow in ground, and live as filter feeders for 3-7 years –> undergo metamorphosis and develop eyes, oral disc, etc. –> adults are parasitic or free living –> build nest in gravel –> spawn –> die

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24
Q

Cyclostomata - Uses

A
  • Lampreys considered a delicacy, hagfish popular in Korea
  • Hagfish skin processed and marketed as “eel skin”
  • Eradication of lampreys because they ruin things
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25
Q

Gnathostoma

A

Group within Vertebrata, contains
- Chondrichthyes
- Osteichthyes
Jawed fish

Synapomorphy: jaws

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26
Q

Cartilage

A

Matrix of collagen + proteoglycans + ~75% water
- Both strong and very flexible

Two types: acellular & cellular

Does not repair itself very quickly or well

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27
Q

Chondrocytes

A

Produce the collagen matrix seen in cartilage

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28
Q

Chondrichthyes

A

Group within Gnathostoma, contains
- Holocephali
- Selachii
Cartilaginous fish

Autapomorphy: cartilaginous endoskeleton stiffened with calcium salts

Characteristics:

  • Claspers on males
  • All have internal fertilization
  • High concentration of urea in tissues
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29
Q

Holocephali

A

Group within Chondrichthyes
Ratfish, chimaeras, spookfish
- Marine

Autapomorphies:

  • 3 pairs of heavily mineralized tooth plates
  • Frontal tenaculum
  • Prepelvic tenaculae

Characteristics:

  • Long, whiplike caudal fin
  • Rabbit-like teeth
  • Large spine in front of first dorsal fin
  • Swim by using pectoral fins as wings
  • Lateral line
  • Ampullae of Lorenzi
  • Holostyly
  • Oviparous and lecithotrophic
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30
Q

Claspers

A

On males only, they are a modification of the cartilaginous rays in the pelvic fin
- Sperm is ejected from the sperm sac, travels through the claspers and into the female

Unique to Chondrichthyes out of extant species, but some extinct jawless fishes had them

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31
Q

Lateral line

A

Pattern of lines on head & running down sides
- Cells are specialized for detecting movement within the water

Make the species that have them look like Franken-fish

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32
Q

Ampullae of Lorenzi

A

Clusters of pores form cells specialized to detect electrical fields

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33
Q

Frontal tenaculum

A

Small club-like structure on the head, just above the eye

  • Only on sexually mature males
  • Covered in sharp spines
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34
Q

Prepelvic tenaculae

A

Pair of structures that sit in pouches in front of the pelvic fin
- Are extruded during courtship

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35
Q

Oviparous

A

Female lays fertilized eggs outside of the body

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36
Q

Lecithotrophic

A

Embryo gets nutrition solely from the yolk produced by the female

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37
Q

Selachii

A

Group within Gnathostoma
Sharks, skates, rays
- Marine
- Many are apex predators

Characteristics:

  • Hyostylic jaw in sharks, Euhyostyly in skates and rays
  • Lateral line
  • Ampullae of Lorenzi
  • Excellent olfaction
  • Court using close following, parallel swimming, nudging, and wrestling

Reproductive styles:

  • Oviparous & lecithotrophic
  • Viviparous & lecithotrophic
  • Viviparous & matrotrophic
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38
Q

Viviparous

A

Embryos develop in the female and she gives birth to live young

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39
Q

Matrotrophic

A

After the embryo consumes the yolk, additional nutrition is provided in some way

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40
Q

Matrotrophy in Selachii

A
  • Yolk sac-uterus connection
  • Oophagy
  • Embryophagy
  • Uterine milk
  • Uterine extensions
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41
Q

Oophagy

A

When the yolk is almost gone, mother ovulates many small eggs into the uterus, which the pups eat

Large ovaries, large pups

42
Q

Embryophagy

A

When a developing pup reaches a certain size, it kills and eats all the other pups within the uterus

43
Q

Uterine milk

A

Specialized cells in the uterus produce nutrients that are then ingested by the embryo

44
Q

Uterine extensions

A

Nutrients are transferred through the embryo’s spiracles and directly into the gut

45
Q

Vulnerability of Selachii

A
  • Low fecundity
  • Long gestation times
  • Slow growth and maturation rates
  • Bold behaviour (unlikely to flee)
  • Nurseries are close to shore (vulnerable to habitat degradation, hunting, fishing)
  • Bycatch, especially of benthic species, which can be captured in trawling nets
46
Q

Osteichthyes

A

Group within Gnathostomata, contains
- Actinopterygii
- Sarcopterygii
Bony fishes

Synapomorphy: gas bladder

47
Q

Gas bladder

A

gas-filled structure covered in guanine crystals that make it nearly impermeable to gas leaks

48
Q

Bone

A

Hard tissue composed of a matrix of collagen/other proteins + ~70% hydroxyapatite crystals + ~5% water

Produced by osteoblasts and can be broken down by osteclasts
- so bone can repair itself

Contains canals though which blood vessels & nerve fibers run

49
Q

Actinopterygii

A

Group within Osteichthyes
Ray-finned fishes

Autapomorphy: ganoine is present in scales and laid down in growth rings

Characteristics:

  • Suction feeding
  • Both internal and external fertilization
  • Can be monogamous or polygamous
  • Can have flexible sex (protogyny, protandry, gynogens)

Parental care:

  • No care
  • Male-only care (nest building, male broods)
  • Female-only care (live young, nests, care)
  • Biparental care
50
Q

Suction feeding

A
  1. Expansion of oral cavity through the lowering of the suspensorium, sucks water and food into oral cavity through negative pressure
  2. Compress oral cavity by raising suspensorium & ejecting water through gills
  3. Swallow large food items, small food items get caught by gill rakers and passed to stomach

Requires close proximity to prey, which can be achieved through stealth or pursuit

51
Q

Monogamy

A

Pair bonding: one pair mates for the breeding season or life

52
Q

Polygamy

A

Many mates per breeding season

Includes:

  • Promiscuity
  • Leks
  • Polygyny
  • Polyandry
53
Q

Promiscuity

A

Mass spawning

No obvious mate choice

Basically a fish orgy

54
Q

Leks

A

Both males and females have multiple partners, but the female is choosing their partner

55
Q

Polygyny

A

A single territorial male mates with a harem of females

56
Q

Polyandry

A

A single territorial female mates with multiple males

57
Q

Protogyny

A

All individuals begin life as a female, and may later change to male

The largest fish in the territory is male, and if he dies the largest female changes sex

58
Q

Protandry

A

All individuals begin as males and may become female

Largest fish in the territory is female, when she dies the largest male changes sex

59
Q

Gynogens

A

All-female species
Need males of a different species for fertilization, but offspring are cloned

Arises from a mating mistake in which a hybrid offspring is made that produces diploid rather than haploid eggs
- When she mates with male of either parent species, the sperm is used to fertilize the egg but no genes are incorporated

60
Q

Male broods

A

Male develops the eggs and fry in the mouth or in a specialized pouch

61
Q

Sarcopterygii

A

Group within Osteichthyes, contains

  • Actinistia
  • Dipnoi
  • Tetrapoda

Synapomorphy: enlarged clavicle, humerus

62
Q

Actinistia

A

Group within Sarcopterygii
Coelecanth

Characteristics:

  • Hollow-spined 1st dorsal fin
  • Lobed pectoral, pelvic, anal, and 2nd dorsal fins
  • Caudal fin w/ epicaudal lobe
  • High concentration of urea in tissues
  • Fat-filled gas bladder
  • Skeleton of both bone & cartilage
  • Viviparous & lecithotrophic
63
Q

Dipnoi

A

Group within Sarcopterygii
Lungfish

Characteristics:

  • Gas bladder used for respiration
  • All extant species are freshwater
  • In adulthood have massive, continuously growing tooth plates
  • Omnivorous
  • Well-developed lateral line & electrosensory systems
  • External fertilization
  • No or male-only care
  • Breathe using lungs (more in S. American & African species)
  • Aestivation
64
Q

Aestivation

A

The act of being in a dormant, underground state when environmental conditions are poor
- Cover self in mucus cocoon and metabolize stored fats

Absent in Australian lungfish, partial in S. American, complete in African

65
Q

Acanthostega

A

Last step in the move towards Tetrapoda

  • Has both fore and hindlimbs but the carpals and tarsals are not fully developed
  • Less ankle/wrist flexibility
66
Q

Tetrapoda

A

Group within Sarcopterygii

Characteristics:
- Four limbs

67
Q

Choana

A

Posterior nostrils that open up into the mouth and allow for breathing with the mouth closed

68
Q

Amphibia

A

Group within Tetrapoda, contains

  • Gymnophiona
  • Caudata
  • Anura

Synapomorphies:

  • Four or fewer digits on forelimbs
  • Four layers of skin (2 epidermis, 2 dermis)
  • Cutaneous respiration
69
Q

Cutaneous respiration

A

Ability to breathe through the skin

This is due to the fact that amphibian skin is so thin

70
Q

Gymnophiona

A

Amphibian
Caecilians
- Mostly terrestrial, some aquatic

Characteristics:

  • Completely limbless
  • Annuli
  • No post-anal tail
  • No scales
  • Reduced eyes
  • No proof of toxicity, even in bright taxa
  • Internal fertilization
  • Most viviparous & matrotrophic (uterine milk, sometimes embryonic dentition)
  • Remaining oviparous, usually lecithotrophic
71
Q

Caudata

A

Amphibians
Salamanders & newts

Characteristics:

  • Tail in adults
  • No scales
  • Relatively weak limbs (sometimes hindlimbs are lost altogether)
  • No vocal cords
  • Many are poisonous
  • Mostly internal fertilization, no intermittent organ
  • Most oviparous & lecithotrophic
72
Q

Unken posture

A

Threat display that shows off brightly-coloured bellies

73
Q

Anura

A

Amphibians
Frogs & toads
Mostly terrestrial, some aquatic

Characteristics:

  • Tailless adults
  • Shortened body
  • Long back legs used for jumping
  • Many have toxic secretions, extracted from diet
  • Mostly external fertilization
  • Vocal courtship, amplexus
  • Mostly oviparous & lecithotrophic
  • Most have no parental care
74
Q

Types of parental care in Anura

A
  • Egg guarding/carrying by male or female
  • Tadpole carrying my male or female
  • Tadpole feeding by male or female
  • Gastric brooding
  • Vocal sac brooding
75
Q

Gastric brooding

A

Female swallows fertilized eggs, which develop into froglets in her stomach

76
Q

Vocal sac brooding

A

Male guards developing eggs & swallows tadpoles when they hatch

Develop into froglets in vocal sac

77
Q

Threats to Anura

A

Main threats to all life stages:

  • Climate change
  • Chytrid fungus
  • Habitat loss

Only affect development:

  • Pollution
  • Acid rain
  • UV light
78
Q

Evolution of Jaws

A
  1. Pharyngeal Slits
  2. True gills
  3. Jawless fishes
  4. Jaws
79
Q

Visceral arch

A

Pair of acellular cartilaginous rods form an arch and hold open a pharyngeal slit

80
Q

True gills

A 
Visceral arch rods made of cellular cartilage
Cilia replaced by rays
Reduction in number of arches
Increase in size of arches
Function for respiration
81
Q

Pharyngeal Anatomy of Jawless Fishes

A

1st Visceral Arch: Mandibular Arch
2nd Visceral Arch: Hyoid Arch
Remaining: Branchial Arches

82
Q

Jaw Anatomy

A

Mandibular arch modified to form components of upper & lower jaw
- Used in feeding

Rays on hyoid arch support gills
Branchial arches are gills
- Respiration

83
Q

Epimandibula

A

Upper jaw

84
Q

Ceratomandibula

A

Lower jaw

85
Q

Epihyoid

A

Upper of hyoid arches

86
Q

Hyomandibula

A

Epihyoid

87
Q

Ceratohyoid

A

Lower hyoid arch

88
Q

Autodiastylic jaw

A

Upper jaw suspended from skull by ligaments

Hyoid arch has rays that support gill openings

89
Q

Holostylic jaw

A

Upper jaw fused to braincase

Hyoid arch has rays

Some rays enlarge to form operculum

Holocephali

90
Q

Hyostylic jaw

A

Upper jaw suspended from skull by one ligament

Hyomandibula articulates with skull & upper jaw

Ceratohyoid articulates with lower jaw

Feeding: upper jaw thrust forward by hyomandibula, lower jaw closes

Sharks (Selachii)

91
Q

Euhyostylic jaw

A

Jaws supported by hyomandibula and no ligament

Both upper and lower jaw can be protruded from mouth

Ceratohyoid reduced or absent

Skates/rays

92
Q

Hyostylic jaw, most derived

A

Jaws supported by chain of three bones known as the suspensorium

Very flexible jaws

Actinopterygii

93
Q

Suspensorium

A

Chain of three bones that connects the jaws with the skull

Hyomandibula –> symplectic –> quadrate

94
Q

Floating - Condrychthyes

A

Cartilaginous skeleton is very light (already close to water)

Liver full of lipids

Can change depth rapidly, but must swim & exhaust energy to do so

95
Q

Floating - Osteichthyes

A

Can have lipids in skin/bones/liver

Most commonly use a gas bladder
- Slower changes because need to control volume of gas in bladder before changing depths or it will burst

96
Q

Types of gas bladder

A
  1. Physostomous type 1
  2. Physostomous type 2
  3. Physoclistous
97
Q

Physostomous type 1

A

Pneumatic duct connects to gas bladder

Fills bladder by gulping air at surface, empty bladder by opening pneumatic duct and spitting out air

98
Q

Physostomous type 2

A

To fill, gas cells in bladder secrete lactic acid into the rete mirabile, the hemoglobin releases oxygen which diffused into the gas bladder

To empty, fish spits out air

99
Q

Physoclistous

A

Gas bladder is now completely separate from the esophagus

To fill the bladder, gas cells secrete lactic acid into rete mirabile and oxygen released by hemoglobin diffuses into gas bladder

To empty, muscles contract to reveal oval of no guanine crystals, through which air diffuses into capillary bed along a vein

100
Q

Evolution of tetrapod limbs

A

Evolution of forelimb and hindlimb are decoupled

Forelimb usually changes before the hindlimb

Happened while the animals were still aquatic

EEB267 (4 decks)

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