Flashcards in Midterm Deck (324)
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1
Anything that takes up space and has mass
Matter
2
A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
Element
3
Examples of elements:
Gold
Copper
Silver
Oxygen
4
Substance consisting of two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio
Compound
5
Which elements make up 96% of living matter
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
CHON
6
What are trace elements
Elements required by organisms in only small quantities
7
The smallest units of an element that still retains the property of the element
Atom
8
What is an atom made of
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
9
Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom
Proton
10
Negatively charged particles found in electron shells around the nucleus of an atom
Electrons
11
Particles with no charge, found in the nucleus of an atom
Neutron
12
Elements that have a varying number of neutrons in its atoms
Isotopes
13
What is the atomic number
The number of protons an element has
14
What is mass number
The sum of protons and neutrons an element has
15
Interactions between the valence electrons of different atoms
Chemical bonds
16
What do chemical bonds do
Hold together atoms to form molecules
17
When valence electrons are shared by two atoms
Covalent bond
18
What are nonpolar covalent bonds
When the electrons being shared are shared equally between two atoms
19
What are polar covalent bonds
There's unequal sharing of electrons
20
What's an ionic bond
The more electronegative atom steals the electron from the less electronegative atom
21
What is an ion
The resulting charged atom after an ionic bond occurs
22
What is a hydrogen bond
Weak bonds between a hydrogen atom and an oxygen or nitrogen
23
Starting materials of a chemical reaction
Reactants
24
Ending materials of a chemical reaction
Products
25
Properties of water
Cohesion and adhesion
Moderation of temp. possible because of water high specific heat
Insulation of bodies of water by floating ice
Water is the universal solvent
26
Linking of like molecules
Cohesion
27
Clinging of one substance to another
Adhesion
28
Amount of heat needed to change the temperature of something by 1°C
Specific heat
29
The substance that something is dissolved in
Solvent
30
The substance being dissolved
Solute
31
Both the solvent and solute together
Solution
32
Water soluble substances
Hydrophilic
33
Substances that cannot be dissolved in water
Hydrophobic
34
What is the range of the pH scale
0-14
35
What do acids have an excess of, and where do they lie in the pH scale
H+ ions
0-7
36
What do bases have an excess of and where do they lie in the pH scale
OH- ions
7-14
37
Where does water lie in the pH scale
7
38
Substances that minimize changes in pH
Buffers
39
All life on earth and all places where life exists
Biosphere
40
Consists of all living and nonliving things in a particular area of the environment with which life interacts
Ecosystem
41
Array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem
Community
42
All the individuals of a species living within the bounds of a specific area
Population
43
Individual living things
Organisms
44
Group of cells that work together, performing a specialized function
Tissue
45
Life's fundamental unit of structure and function
Cells
46
What do all organic compounds contain
Carbon
47
Why is carbon perfect for forming molecules that are large, complex, and diverse
Has 4 valence electrons
Can form up to 4 covalent bonds
The covalent bonds can be Single, double, or triple
48
What are isomers
Molecules with the same formula, but arranged differently
49
What does the different arrangement of isomers do
Makes the molecules different in their biological activities
50
Long chain molecules made of repeating subunits called monomers
Polymers
51
What is created from a dehydration reaction, and from what
Polymers from monomers
52
What occurs in hydrolysis
Water is added to break up larger molecules
53
What is the formula for all carbohydrates
A ratio of 1:2:1 for carbon hydrogen and oxygen
54
What are monosaccharides
The monomers of carbohydrates
55
What are polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides
56
Two functions of polysaccharides
Energy storage
Structural support
57
Examples of energy storage polysaccharides
Starch
Glycogen
58
Examples of structural support polysaccharides
Cellulose
Chitin
59
Are lipids hydrophilic or hydrophobic
Hydrophobic
60
What else are fats called
Triglycerides
61
What are fats made up of
Glycerol and 3 fatty acid molecules
62
Function of lipids
Energy storage
Protection of vital organs
Insulation
63
What do phospholipids make up
Cell membranes
64
What are two types of steroid hormones
Estrogen and testosterone
65
What are proteins made up of
Amino acid monomers
66
What do peptide bonds do and how are they formed
Hold together amino acids
Formed by dehydration synthesis
67
What are the 4 levels to protein structure
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
68
Describe the primary structure of a protein
Unique sequence in which amino acids are linked
69
Describe the secondary structure of a protein
Either alpha helix or beta pleated sheet
70
Describe the alpha helix shape
A coiled shape
71
Describe the beta pleated sheet shape
An accordion shape
72
Describe the tertiary structure of a protein
Globular shape
73
Describe the quaternary structure of a protein
Two or more polypeptide chains into one large protein
74
What happens when a protein is denatured, and what can use it
Protein loses its shape and ability to function
Heat, a change of pH, or other disturbances can cause it
75
What are enantiomers
Molecules with the same atoms, except they are arranged as mirror images of each other
76
What does DNA stand for
Deoxyribonucleic acid
77
What does RNA stand for
Ribonucleic acid
78
What are the monomers of DNA and RNA
Nucleotides
79
What 3 things are nucleotides made up of
Nitrogenous bases
Pentose
Phosphate group
80
Which are the nitrogenous bases
Adenine
Thymine/Uracil
Cytosine
Guanine
81
What is pentode. What is it in DNA, and what is it in RNA
A 5-carbon sugar
Deoxyribose
Ribose
82
What is DNA the molecule of?
Heredity
83
What is the shape of DNA
A double stranded helix
84
How many strands in RNA?
One
85
What is dehydration reaction
When two molecules covalently bond and lose a water molecule
86
Which molecule contains a polar covalent bond
H2O
87
The major class of biological molecules that are not polymers
Lipids
88
Linkages between monomers of proteins
Peptide bonds
89
Structural carbohydrate found in plants
Cellulose
90
Process by which protein conformation is lost or broken down
Denaturation
91
Which macromolecule can be structural parts of the cell, enzymes, or involved in cell movement or communication
Proteins
92
Which macromolecule serves as the fluid interface between the intracellular and extracellular environments
Phospholipids
93
The type of attraction when the partial negative charge at one end of a water molecule is attracted to the partial positive charge of another water molecule
Hydrogen bond
94
Which process synthesizes polymers of carbohydrates and proteins
Dehydration reactions
95
Which two functional groups are always found in amino acids
Carboxyl and amine
96
Tremendous variation and unique properties of proteins are most likely a result of what?
Interactions between R groups of the amino acids
97
What makes water an excellent solvent
It can surround and dissolve ionic and polar bonds
98
Characteristics of a prokaryote
Plasma membrane
Ribosome
99
Characteristic of a eukaryote
Plasma membrane
Ribosomes
Membrane bound organelles
Nucleus
100
What domains are prokaryotic cells found in
Bacteria and archae
101
What domain are eukaryotic cells in
Eukarya
102
Where is the single chromosome of a prokaryote found
The nucleoid
103
Where are the chromosomes found in a eukaryotic cell
Nucleus
104
Where are membrane bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells
Cytoplasm
105
What does the plasma membrane do
Forms the boundary for the cell
106
What is selective permeability
Permits the passage of materials in and out of the cell
107
What is the plasma membrane made up of
Phospholipids
Proteins
Carbohydrates
108
What does the nucleus contain
Most of the cells DNA
109
Where is DNA used as a template to make RNA
The nucleus
110
What is the nucleus surrounded by
Nuclear envelope
111
What do nuclear pores do
Control what enters or leaves the nucleus
112
The complex of DNA and protein housed in the nucleus that is formed from chromosomes
Chromatin
113
"Protein factories"
Ribosomes
114
What are ribosomes composed of
rRNA and proteins
115
What are ribosomes the sites of
Protein synthesis
116
Difference between free and bound ribosomes
Free ribosomes float around while bound ribosomes are attached to the ER
117
What does smooth ER do
Synthesize lipids
Metabolism of carbohydrates
Detoxification of drugs or poisons
118
What does rough ER do
Ribosomes make the structure appear rough under microscope
119
What does the Golgi apparatus do
Modifies and transports particles of the ER
120
Enzymes that can digest large molecules
Lysosomes
121
Sites of cellular respiration
Mitochondria
122
What is cellular respiration
Metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels
123
Sites of photosynthesis
Chloroplasts
124
Evidence that both mitochondria and chloroplast share a similar origin
Both have a double membrane
Both have their own ribosomes and circular DNA
Both reproduce independently within the cell
125
What is the purpose of the cytoskeleton
Responsible for the structure, support, motility, and regulating chemical activities in the cytoplasm
126
The largest cytoskeleton fibers
Microtubules
127
What do microtubules do during mitosis and meiosis
Separate the chromosomes
128
What are microfilaments made up of
Actin
129
What are centrosomes
Place where microtubules grow
130
What happens to centrioles
Replicate before cell division
131
What does the cell wall do
Protects and helps maintain shape
132
What are cell walls mostly made of
Cellulose
133
Sections of animal cell membrane where two neighboring cells are fused
Tight junction
134
When cells are taken apart and separated for researchers to be able to identify cell components and study them
Cell fractations
135
What kind of layer do phospholipids form in the plasma membrane, and what does this do
A hydrophobic barrier
Doesn't easily allow hydrophilic molecules to enter the cell, but easily allows hydrophobic molecules to enter
136
What are the functions of carbohydrates in the plasma membrane
Cell-cell recognition
137
What do aquaporins do
Allows water to move through the transport proteins
138
Passive diffusion
When a substance travels down the concentration gradient. Requires no energy to be used
139
Diffusion of water across a selective permeable membrane
Osmosis
140
What happens in an isotonic solution
Water crosses the membrane at the same rate in both directions
141
What happens in a hypertonic solution
Water rushes out of the cell. The cell shrivels and may die
142
What happens in a hypotonic solution
Water rushes into the cell. Cell may burst
143
When transport proteins help ionic and polar molecules pass across the membrane
Facilitated diffusion
144
What is active transport
When substances move against the concentration gradient, from where there's less concentration, to more. This requires energy
145
What does the sodium-potassium pump do
Pumps sodium out and potassium into the cell
146
What does exocytosis do
Expels macromolecules
147
What does endocytosis do
Takes in macromolecules
148
What is amphipathic
When something has a hydrophilic and hydrophobic region
149
Give an example of something that is amphipathc
A phospholipid
150
When a cell engulfs a particle
Phagocytosis
151
When a cell "gulps" droplets of extracellular fluid
Pinocytosis
152
Target cells detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell
Reception
153
Conversion of the signal in cell signaling to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response
Transduction
154
The specific cellular response to the signal molecule in cell signaling
Response
155
A signal molecule
Ligand
156
What turns on and off signals in cell signaling in proteins
On: kinases
Off: phosphatases
157
Controlled "cell suicide"
Apoptosis
158
Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins. Important to turn off signaling
Protein phosphatases
159
Life of a cell from when its first formed from a dividing parent cell, to when it divides itself into two cells
The cell cycle
160
All cells except gametes
Somatic cells
161
Sperm and egg cells
Gametes
162
Difference between gametes and somatic cells
Gametes are haploid (have half the number of chromosomes)
163
What do chromosomes consist of when they are replicated
Sister chromatids
164
Division of a cells nucelus
Mitosis
165
Division of a cells cytoplasm
Cytokinesis
166
Process where cells genetic information duplication takes place
Interphase
167
The two processes of growth in interphase
G1 and g2 phase
168
Process of interphase where chromosomes are duplicated
S phase
169
Phases of mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
170
Process in prophase
Chromatin becomes tightly coiled
Nucleoli disappear
Mitotic spindle begins to appear
Nuclear envelope begins to fragment
171
What holds together sister chromatids
A centromere
172
Process in metaphase
Microtubules move the chromosomes toward the metaphase plate
Centrioles go to the opposite polls
173
Process in anaphase
Sister chromatids are pulled apart
Both ends of the set have equal chromosomes
174
Process in telophase
Nuclear envelope reforms around the chromosomes
175
Process in cytokinesis
Cytoplasm of the cell gets divided (cleavage furrow formed)
176
What process do prokaryotes replicate
Binary fission
177
What controls the cell cycle
The cell cycle control system
178
The major checkpoints in interphase
G1 checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
M checkpoint
179
A mass of abnormal cells
Tumor
180
Tumor that remains at the original site
Benign tumor
181
Tumor that interferes with the functions of one or more organs
Malignant tumor
182
When cancer cells spread throughout other parts of the body, creating more tumors
Metastasis
183
An organelle that is extensive, has folded membranes, and is abundant in cells that detoxify poisons
Smooth ER
184
An organelle with a cis and trans face, which acts as the packaging and secreting center of the cell
Golgi apparatus
185
Cells not found in red blood cells, but present in large numbers in muscle cells
Mitochondria
186
Large membrane bound structures that contain hydrolysis enzymes and are found predominantly in animal cells
Lysosomes
187
Which component molecules of the plasma membrane is most important in the reception phase of cell signaling
Protein
188
What uses passive transport to move materials across the cell membrane
Carbon dioxide across the cell membrane
189
In cell signaling, how is the flow of specific ions regulated
Opening and closing of ligand gated ion channels
190
A protein on the cytoplasmic side of a membrane that becomes activated by a receptor protein
G protein
191
Can activate a protein by transferring a phosphate group to it
Protein kinase
192
Why are second messengers used in signal transduction pathways
To relay the message from the inside of the membrane throughout the cytoplasm
193
What would happen if cytokinesis did not occur
Daughter cells would have two complete sets of chromosomes
194
Manages the material and energy resources of the cell
Metabolism
195
What does catabolic pathway do
Releases energy by breakdown of molecules
196
What does anabolic pathway do
Absorbs energy to build molecules
197
The capacity to do work
Energy
198
What kind of energy do things that are moving use
Kinetic energy
199
What kind of energy do objects at rest possess.
Potential energy
200
Amount of chemical energy a molecule possesses
Chemical energy
201
Is chemical energy kinetic or potential
Potential
202
Study of energy transformation that occur in matter
Thermodynamics
203
What's the first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred but not created or destroyed
204
Symbol for change in free energy
(Triangle) G
205
A reaction in which energy is released
Exergonic reacrion
206
Do exergonic reactions occur spontaneously?
Yes
207
A reaction that requires energy in order to proceed
Endergonic reaction
208
Primary source of energy for cells
ATP
209
The result when ATP transfers one phosphate group through hydrolysis
ADP
210
Substances that change the rate of a reaction without being altered in the process
Catalysts
211
Macromolecules that are biological catalysts
Enzymes
212
The amount of energy needed to start a reaction
Activation energy
213
The reactant that an enzyme acts on
Substrate
214
Part of the enzyme that binds to the substrate
Active site
215
The result of the enzyme-catalyst reaction
Product
216
What things can affect the way an enzyme acts
Temperature
Shape
pH
217
What do some enzymes need in order to function
Cofactors
218
Organic cofactors
Coenzymes
219
Inhibitors that compete with the substrate for the active site on the enzyme
Competitive inhibitors
220
What do noncompetitive inhibitors do
Bind do another part of the enzyme which changes its shape and renders it nonfunctional
221
Partial degradation of sugars that occurs without the use of oxygen
Fermentation
222
When oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with organic fuel
Aerobic respiration
223
What is the primary molecule used in cellular respiration
Glucose
224
How does cellular respiration work? (How the molecules get transferred)
Glucose and oxygen get transformed into carbon dioxide, water and energy
225
What happens in redox reactions
Electrons are transferred from one reactant to another
226
What is the loss of one or more electrons called
Oxidation
227
What is the gain of one or more electrons called
Reduction
228
3 stages of cellular respiration
Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation
229
What happens in glycolysis
Glucose is broken down
230
What is glucose broken down into in glycolysis
Two pyruvate
231
What is the net energy gain in glycolysis
2 ATP
2NADH
232
What does pyruvate become after glycolysis
Acetyl CoA
233
What is the waste product of glucose being broken down
Carbon dioxide
234
What are the products of the citric acid cycle
4 carbon dioxide
6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
235
What powers the electron transport chain
The electrons carried by NADH and FADH2
236
Total average ATP yield per glucose molecule
30-32
237
Generates ATP without oxygen using an electron transport chain
Anaerobic respiration
238
When pyruvate is converted to ethanol
Alcohol fermentation
239
Pyruvate is reduced and lactate is formed as a waste product
Lactic acids fermentation
240
"Self feeders". Are known as the producers
Autotrophs
241
Consumers. Live on compounds produced by other organisms
Heterotrophs
242
Specific sites of photosynthesis in plant cells
Chloroplasts
243
A dense fluid-filled area in chloroplasts
Stroma
244
Network of interconnected membranous sacs in the stroma
Thylakoids
245
Light absorbing pigment that drives photosynthesis and give plants their green color
Chlorophyll
246
Where do light reactions occur
The thylakoids
247
What are the net products of light reactions
NADPH
ATP
Oxygen
248
What are the particles of light called
Photons
249
Substance that absorbs light
Pigments
250
A graph plotting a pigments light absorption
Absorption spectrum
251
Graphs that show the effectiveness of wavelength of light
Action spectrum
252
The groups of pigment molecules that absorb photons of light
Photosystems
253
The two parts of phototsystems
Light harvesting complex
Reaction center
254
Process by which DNA direct synthesis of proteins
Gene expression
255
What is transcription
Synthesis of RNA using a DNA strand
256
Where does transcription occur
The nucleus
257
What does mRNA do
Carries the message of DNA to the ribosome to make the RNA strand
258
What is translation
Production of a polypeptide chain by the mRNA
259
The DNA strand that is used during transcription to make the mRNA
Template strand
260
The mRNA base triplets
Codons
261
What is RNA polymerase
Enzyme that separates the two DNA strands to begin transcription
262
The DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches to begin transcription
Promoter
263
The DNA sequence that signals the end of transcription
Terminator
264
3 steps of transcription
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
265
What gets added to the RNA after transcription
A 5' cap and a poly-A tail
266
What happens during RNA splicing
Introns are removed
267
The "thing" that splice together exons and removed introns
Spliceosome
268
What does snRNA do
Speeds the process of RNA splicing
269
When RNA serves a catalytic role
Ribozyme
270
What does tRNA do
Helps elongate the polypeptide chain by bringing amino acids to the ribosome
271
What does a tRNA have that lets it read the codons
Anticodon
272
What are the sites located in the ribosome
P
A
E
273
What is the P site in a ribosome
Location where a tRNA is held until it gets moved to the A site
274
What is the A site in a ribosome
Where the tRNA adds the amino acid into the polypeptide chain
275
What is the E site in a ribosome
Where the tRNA exits the ribosome
276
What are the three stages in translation
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
277
What is the start codon for translation
AUG
278
What does gene methylation do
Makes DNA more tightly packaged, which reduces gene expression
279
What does his tone acetylation do
Acetyl groups are added to amino acids and makes chromatin less packed
280
Process by which cells become specialized
Cell differentiation
281
What does morphogenesis do
Gives an organism its shape
282
Series of events that leads to observable differentiation of a cell
Determination
283
Cancer causing genes
Oncogenes
284
Genes that code for normal cell growth
Protooncogenes
285
Branch of biology for naming and classifying life
Taxonomy
286
What did Charles Lyell thing about earth
It has geologic processes that have shaped the planet over time
287
Heritable characteristics that enhance an organisms ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments
Adaptations
288
Process by which species are modified by humans
Artificial selection
289
When characteristics in related species are similar even though they have different functions
Homology
290
Organs that have little to no use to the organism. Served a purpose to their ancestors
Vestigial organs
291
Shared characteristics in the molecular level
Molecular homologies
292
What is convergent evolution
When two organisms develop similarities as they adapted to similar environmental challenges, but not because of common ancestry
293
The study of fossils
Paleontology
294
The only source of new genes and new alleles
Mutations
295
Point mutation
A change in one nucleotide base in a gene
296
What are the three types of "shuffling" of genes in sexual reproduction
Cross over
Independent assortment
Fertilization
297
Study of how populations change genetically over time
Population genetics
298
Group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and reproduce
Population
299
What is the hardy weinberg formula
P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
300
What does q mean in the hardy weinberg formula
Frequency of the dominant allele
301
What does q mean in the hardy weinberg formula
Frequency of the recessive allele
302
What does p^2 mean in the hardy weinberg formula
Frequency of homozygous dominant
303
What does q^2 mean in the hardy weinberg formula
Frequency of homozygous recessive
304
What does 2pq mean in the hardy weinberg formula
Frequency of heterozygous
305
Describe natural selection
Organism that are better suited to their environment have a higher chance of survival, so their genes get passed down at a higher rate than those that aren't
306
What are two examples of genetic drift
Founders effect
Bottleneck effect
307
Explain founders effect
A few individuals get isolated from the main population, and they establish a new gene pool different form the gene pool of the old population
308
Explain bottleneck effect
There's a sudden change in the environment that reduces the size of the population. This changes the gene pool
309
Describe gene flow
Change of the gene flow due to the addition or subtraction of an individual(s) to a population
310
Explain direction selection
One of the two extremes are favored
311
Explain disruptive selection
Both extremes are favored, not the intermediate
312
Explain stabilizing selection
Removes extreme variants from the population and keeps the intermediate ones
313
What is sexual dimorphism
Differences in the two sexes
314
Process by which new species arise
Speciation
315
Microevolution
Change in alleles and genetic makeup
316
Macroevolution
Pattern of evolutionary change in species
317
Allopatric speciation
Population forms a new species because they were geographically isolated
318
Sympathies speciation
A small part of the population forms a new species even though they aren't geographically isolated
319
Polyploidy
More than two sets of chromosomes
320
When many species come from a single common ancestor
Adaptive radiation
321
How long ago was earth formed
4.6 billion years ago
322
Were the earliest living organisms prokaryotic or eukaryotic
Prokaryotic
323
What was the endosymbiotic hypothesis
Mitochondria and chloroplasts were small prokaryotes that began living with larger cells
324
