Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
What is social psychology?
A
The study of individuals (thoughts, feelings, actions) in environments
2
Q
What are the common approaches to social psychology?
A
Often empirical (observational) and experimental - Ex: manipulate aspects of social environment and see how this affects thoughts, feelings, or behaviour, on average
3
Q
What happened in 1900?
A
First experiment done by Triplett
- Observed people cycle faster in a race than by themselves
- Context shaping our behaviours without our knowledge (even when trying our hardest)
4
Q
What were the first textbooks?
A
- McDougall 1908
- Ross 1908
- Allport 1924- in particular stressed interactions between individuals and social context and focus on experiments
5
Q
What was significant about the 1930s-40s?
A
Hitler
- Many fled to the states to study at university; many immigrants and refugees
- Desire to study a bunch of stuff that happened in WWII
- Milgram (obedience/conformity)
- Allport (intergroup bias)
- Festinger (cognitive dissonance)
- Basically, trying to determine how humans could do such things to other humans
6
Q
Research progressed normally until what?
A
The replication crisis
7
Q
What is the goal of science?
A
To slowly accumulate evidence in support of (or refuting) theories about the world
• Impossible to “prove” a theory, the evidence in support of it just becomes overwhelming
• The “evidence” is studies that people do testing aspects of theories
8
Q
Explain the importance of replication?
A
- For evidence to be considered evidence, important that independent labs can run the same experiment, and get similar results, over and over again (this is replication)
- When a paper is published, it has been reviewed by other experts on various things, to make it likely that it is replicable. And we all (used to) assume it is a real thing
- If other people tried to replicate and couldn’t we would question it
9
Q
What sparked the replication crisis?
A
• Feeling the future
- Published by JPSP, very high prestige psychology journal
- 9 experiments finding evidence, work was considered generally well-done
- But, no one believed this was a thing
- Goes in the face of physics/biology/everything we know about the world
10
Q
What was the replicability project?
A
Big group tried to replicate 100 studies: 36% replicated
11
Q
How did researchers start investigating how researchers investigate?
A
- Institutional pressures: “publish or perish”
- Flashy and significant effects needed to publish: publication bias
- Lots of ways to analyze data: garden of forking paths, P-hacking, intentional and unintentional
12
Q
What are solutions to the replication crisis?
A
• Establishing best (statistical and methodological) practices to avoid p-hacking
• Revisiting established effects and support for replicating what we thought of as real things
• Psychological science accelerator: 100 different labs run the same study
- “ManyLabs” replication projects
- Registered reports
- Pre-registration of hypotheses (forcing people to be honest)
- Open data, open code, methods
13
Q
What is clinical psychology?
A
Seek to understand and treat people with psychological difficulties or disorders
14
Q
What is personality psychology?
A
Seeks to understand stable differences between individuals
15
Q
What is cognitive psychology?
A
Study mental processes such as thinking, learning, remembering, and reasoning
16
Q
Who is Norman Triplett?
A
Credited with having published the first research article in social psychology
- studied why cyclists raced faster when racing against others
17
Q
Who is Max Ringelmann?
A
Noted that individuals often performed worse on simple tasks when they performed them with other people
18
Q
Which people were credited for establishing social psychology as a distinct field of study?
A
William McDougall, Edward Ross, and Floyd Allport
19
Q
When was the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues formed?
A
1936
20
Q
What is the interactionist perspective?
A
An emphasis on how both an individual’s personality and environmental characteristics influence behaviour
- established by Kurt Lewin, who argued for social psych theories to be applied to important, practical issues
21
Q
What is P hacking?
A
Describes the conscious or subconscious manipulation of data in a way that produces a desired p-value
22
Q
What was the significance of Stanley Milgram’s research?
A
- His early research in the middle 1960s linked the post-world war II era with the coming era of social evolution
- His experiments demonstrated individual’s vulnerability to the destructive commands of authority
23
Q
What was the leading research method of the day in the 1960s-mid 1970s?
A
The laboratory experiment
- caused a lot of controversy
24
Q
What was significant about the mid 1970s to the 2000s?
A
More rigorous ethical standards for research were instituted, more stringent procedures to guard against bias were adopted, and more attention was paid to possible cross-cultural differences in behaviour
25
What is social cognition?
The study of how we perceive, remember, and interpret information about ourselves and others
26
Explain the "cold" and "hot" perspectives
Cold: emphasized the role of cognition and de-emphasized the role of emotion and motivation (dominant in 70s and 80s)
Hot: focused on emotion and motivation as determinants of our thoughts and actions
27
What is behavioural genetics?
a sub-field of psychology that examines the effects of genes on behaviour
28
What is evolutionary psychology?
Uses the principles of evolution to understand human behaviour
29
What is culture?
A system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
30
What is cross-cultural research?
Examines similarities and differences across a variety of cultures
31
What is multicultural research?
Examines racial and ethnic groups within cultures
32
What is the interdependent model of self?
Motivation and action stem in large part from the influences of close others, especially of one's mother
33
What are behavioural economics?
An interdisciplinary subfield that focuses on how psychology- particularly social and cognitive psychology- relates to economic decision making
34
Why did the traditional economic models inadequate?
They failed to account for the powerful- and often seemingly irrational- role that psychological factors have on people's economic behaviour
35
What is social neuroscience?
The study of the relationship between neural and social processes
36
What is embodied cognition?
Examines the close links between our minds and the positioning, experiences, and actions of our bodies
37
What is the significance of virtual reality experiments?
Because participants in these experiments are immersed in a virtual reality that the experimenters create for them, the researchers can test questions that would be impractical, impossible, or unethical without this technology
38
What is a hypothesis?
A testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur
39
What is a theory?
An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena
- has little worth if it cannot be tested
40
How can a wrong theory make an important contribution to the field?
The results shed light on new truths that might not have been discovered without the directions suggested by the theory
41
What is basic research?
Research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behaviour, often but testing hypotheses based on a theory
42
What is applied research?
Research whose goal is to make applications to the world and contribute to the solution of social problems
43
What are conceptual variables?
When the variables typically are in abstract, general form
44
What is an operational definition?
The specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable
Ex: measuring one's state of intoxication - when a participants says that they feel drunk
45
What is construct validity?
The extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the experiment manipulations manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate
46
What is the bogus pipeline technique?
A procedure in which research participants are (falsely) led to believe that their responses will be verified by an infallible lie detector
47
What are interval-contingent self reports?
Respondents report their experiences at regular intervals
48
What are signal-contingent self-reports?
Respondents report their experiences as soon as possible after being signalled to do so
49
What are event-contingent self-reports?
Respondents report on a designated set of events as soon as possible after such events have occurred
50
What is interrater reliability?
The degree to which different observers agree on their observations
51
What is descriptive research?
Describes people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
52
What is archival research?
Examines existing records of past events and behaviours, such as newspaper articles, medical records, diaries, sports statistics, personal ads, crime statistics, or hits on a website
53
What is random sampling?
A method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study
54
What is correlational research?
Research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher
55
What is the correlation coefficient?
A statistical measure of the strength and direction between two variables
56
What is an experiment?
A form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because (1) the experimenter has control over the events that occur and (2) participants are randomly assigned to conditions
57
What is random assignment?
A method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions
58
What is field research?
Conducted in real-world settings outside the laboratory
59
What is a independent variable?
In an experiment, a factor that experimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable
60
What is a dependent variable?
In an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the independent variable
61
What is a subject variable?
A variable that characterizes preexisting differences among the participants in the study
- if a study includes subject variables but no true, randomly assigned independent variable, it is not a true experiment
62
What does it mean when something is statistically significant?
The odds are quite good that the effects obtained in the study were due to the experimental manipulation of the independent variable
- This does not mean that the results are absolutely certain
63
What is internal validity?
The degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables
- Experiment often include control groups to ensure this
64
What is a confound?
A factor other than the independent variable that varies between the conditions of an experiment, thereby calling into question what caused any effects on the dependent variable
65
What are experimenter expectancy effects?
The effects produced when an experimenter's expectations about the results of an experiment affect their behaviour toward a participant and thereby influence the participant's responses
66
What is external validity?
The degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations
- Experiments with huge samples ensure this
67
What is mundane realism?
The degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world
68
What is experimental realism?
The degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously
69
What is deception?
In the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants
70
What is a confederate?
Accomplice if an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, acts as if they are also a participant
71
What is a meta-analysis?
A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular events
72
Explain the significance of institutional research boards (IRBs)
They became a key safeguard for research, taking on the responsibility of reviewing research proposals to ensure that the welfare of participants is adequately protected
73
What is informed consent?
An individual's voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researchers description of what will be required during such participation
74
What is debriefing?
A disclosure, made to participants after research procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participant'e involvement
75
What is highest and best use?
Estimate what the best use of a product would be to put a certain amount of tax on it
- Private golf courses are not taxed as much as they should be
76
What is proposition 13?
For tax purposes, the value of your property is frozen at pre-1978 levels
- It can only be reassessed if it’s sold or ownership of the property changes by at least 50%
77
What is the mereological theory of identity?
The theory that the identity is the sum of its component parts
- Change the parts, you change the thing
78
What is the spatiotemporal continuity theory?
An object can maintain its identity so long as the change is gradual, and the form is preserved through the changes of its component materials
79
What is the equality heuristic?
We tend to assign equal weight to people’s opinions
| - It’s better to put more weight onto people that are more knowledgeable
80
Explain the significance of the surprisingly popular vote
Clever way to figure out who has higher knowledge about something
- Tends to predict the correct answer in many different domains
81
What is theory of mind?
The ability to think about what other people are thinking
82
What is rationalization?
The mind finding realistic ways to see the world, so it feels better about the world in which it finds itself
83
What is surrogation?
Using other people’s experiences as a guide to your own
- When we have no information about an event, we listen to other people who do have the experience
- But if you have even a small piece of information, you’ll take that over other people’s experiences
84
What is the illusion of diversity?
We think we are utterly unique, but we’re not
85
We study WEIRD people. What does that mean?
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic
86
What is the control group?
Group that doesn't receive treatment
| - Important for determining direction of effect, if effect is actually different from baseline
87
What is a single-blind procedure?
Participants don’t know what condition they are in
| - Real drug vs. placebo
88
What is a double-blind procedure?
Participants AND researchers don’t know what condition participants are in
89
What is the self-concept?
The sum total of an individual's belief about his or her own personal attributes
90
What is a self-schema?
A belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self-relevant information
91
What is the cocktail party effect?
The tendency of people to pick a personally relevant stimulus, like a name, out of a complex and noisy environment
92
How is the self "relational"?
We draw our sense of who we are from our past and current relationships with the significant other in our lives
93
What is self-knowledge derived from?
Introspection; looking inward at one's own thoughts and feelings
94
Why do we so often fail to understand our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours?
Human beings are mentally busy processing information
95
What is affective forecasting?
The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events
96
What is impact bias?
People overestimate the strength and duration their emotional reactions
- We usually underestimate the influence of other stuff
97
What is the self-perception theory?
The theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behaviour
98
What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
The hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion
99
What is intrinsic motivation?
When people engage in an activity for the sake of their own interest
100
What is extrinsic motivation?
When people engage in an activity as a means to an end, for tangible benefit
101
What is the over justification effect?
The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors
102
What is the social comparison theory?
The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others
- people engage in this theory in states of uncertainty, when more objective means of self-evaluation are not available
103
What is a reminiscence bump?
Older adults tend to retrieve a large number of personal memories from their adolescence and early adult years
104
What are flashbulb memories?
Enduring, detailed, high-resolution recollections
105
What is nostalgia?
A sentimental longing for the past
106
What are the 4 I's of culture?
IDEAS, INSTITUTIONS, and social INTERACTIONS that shape how INDIVIDUALS think, feel, and act
107
What is an independent view of the self?
The self is an entity that is distinct, autonomous, self-contained, and endowed with unique dispositions
108
What is an interdependent view of the self?
The self is part of a larger network that includes one's family, co-workers, and others with whom one is socially connected
109
What is dialecticism?
An Eastern system of thought that accepts the coexistence of contradictory characteristics within a single person
110
What is self-esteem?
An affective component of the self, consisting of a person's positive and negative self-evaluations
- defined by the match or mismatch between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves
111
What is the sociometer theory?
The theory that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors our social interactions and sends us signals as to whether our behaviour is acceptable to others
112
What is the terror management theory?
The theory that humans cope with the fear of their own death by constructing world views that help to preserve their self-esteem
113
What is the self-awareness theory?
The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behaviour
114
What are the two ways to cope with negative self awareness according to the self-awareness theory?
1. "Shape up" by behaving in ways that help reduce our self-discrepancies OR
2. "Ship out" by withdrawing from self-awareness
115
What is private self-consciousness?
A personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states
116
What is public self-consciousness?
A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others
117
What is self regulation?
The process by which people control their thoughts, feelings, or behaviour in order to achieve a personal or social goal
118
What are ironic processes?
The harder you try to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behaviour, the less likely you are to succeed
119
What is implicit egotism?
A non conscious form of self-enhancement
120
What is self-handicapping?
Behaviours designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure
121
What is sandbagging?
When people play down their own ability, lower expectations, and publicly predict that they will fail
122
What is bask in reflected glory (BIRG)?
To increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful
123
What is downward social comparison?
The defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are
• Two approaches are to be happy and BIRG, or jealousy and social distance
124
What is the spotlight effect?
A tendency to believe the the social spotlight shines more brightly on them than it really does
125
What is self-presentation?
Strategies people use to shape what others think of them
126
What is ingratiation?
A term used to describe acts that are motivated by the desire to "get along" with others and be liked
127
What is self-verification?
The desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves
128
What is self-monitoring?
The tendency to regulate behaviour in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation
129
What is the two-factor theory of emotion?
We aren't good at introspecting to tell what emotion we're feeling, so we use comparisons and context
130
What is social perception?
A general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another
131
What is physiognomy?
The art of reading character from faces
132
What are "scripts"?
Preset notions about certain types of situations that enable us to anticipate the goals, behaviours, and outcomes
133
What is mind perception?
The process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people
134
What dimensions do people perceive minds along?
Agency (a target's ability to plan and execute behaviour) and experience (the capacity to feel pleasure, pain, and other sensations)
135
What is non-verbal behaviour?
Behaviour that reveals a person's feelings without words, through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues
136
What is insula?
A structure in the brain that is activated when participants sniff disgusting odours and watch other people sniff them
137
What are dispositions?
Stable characteristics such as personality traits, attitudes, and abilities
138
What is the attribution theory?
A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behaviour
139
What is personal attribution?
Attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or effort
140
What is situational attribution?
Attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck
141
What is the correspondent influence theory?
Predicts that people try to infer from an action whether the act corresponds to an enduring personal trait of the actor
- 1st factor: the person's degree of choice
- 2nd factor: the expectedness of the behaviour
- 3rd factor: the intended effects/consequences of behaviour
142
What is the covariation principle?
A principle of attribution theory that holds that people attribute behaviour to factors that are present when a behaviour occurs and are absent when it doesn't
- 3 kinds of information: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
143
What is consensus information?
To see how different persons react to the same stimulus
144
What is distinctiveness information?
To see how the same person reacts to different stimuli
145
What is consistency information?
To see what happens to the behaviour at another time when the person and the stimulus both remain the same
146
What is the availability heuristic?
The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind
147
What is the false consensus effect?
The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviours
148
What is the base-rate fallacy?
The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates
149
What is counterfactual thinking?
The tendency to imagine alternative events that might have occurred but did not
150
What do people's top 3 regrets centre around?
Education, Career, Romance
151
What is the "first instinct fallacy"?
The idea that it is best to stick with one's original answer
152
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people's behaviour
153
What is belief in a just world?
The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims
154
What is impression formation?
The process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression
- summation model: the more positive traits, the better
- averaging model: the higher the average value of all the various traits, the better
155
What is the information integration theory?
The theory that impressions are based on (1) perceiver dispositions and (2) a weighted average of a target person's traits
156
What is priming?
The tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information
157
What are the 5 broad traits that can distinguish individuals from one another?
Extroversion, emotional stability, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
- perceivers most likely to agree on extraversion
158
What is the trait negativity bias?
The tendency for negative information to weigh more heavily on our impressions than positive information
159
What is the implicit personality theory?
A network of assumptions about the relationships among various types of people, traits, and behaviours
160
What are central traits?
Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions
161
Who was the first to discover that the presence of one trait often implies the presence of other traits?
Solomon Asch
162
What are the universal dimensions of social cognition?
Warmth (friendly, helpful, sincere) and Competence (smart, skillful, and determined)
163
What are primacy effects?
The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later
164
What is the need for closure?
The desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impressions
165
What is the change-of-meaning hypothesis?
Once people have formed an impression, they start to interpret inconsistent information in light of that impression
166
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs
167
What is belief perseverance?
The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited
168
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?
The process by which one's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations
- can have sad and ironic effects on people who are insecure about their social relationships
169
What is racism?
Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another
170
What is sexism?
Prejudice and and discrimination based on a person's gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender over another
171
What is a stereotype?
A belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics
172
What is prejudice?
Negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups
173
What is discrimination?
Behaviour directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group
174
What is modern racism?
A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize
175
What is aversive racism?
Racism that concerns the ambivalence between fair-minded attitudes and beliefs, on the one hand, and unconscious and unrecognized prejudicial feelings and beliefs, on the other hand
176
What is micro aggression?
The everyday, typically subtle but hurtful forms of discrimination that are experienced quite frequently by members of groups
177
What is implicit racism?
Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally
178
What does thinking in a polycultural way mean?
Focusing on the ways that racial and ethnic groups have interacted and influenced each other's cultures throughout history
- can be very effective in promoting positive intergroup relations
179
What is ambivalent sexism?
A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings (hostile) and affectionate and chivalrous (benevolent) but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings
180
What does being stigmatized mean?
Being persistently stereotyped, perceived as deviant, and devalued in society because of membership in a particular social group or because of a particular characteristic
181
What is stereotype threat?
The experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one's group
182
What are social identity threats?
Threats that are not necessarily tied to specific stereotypes but instead reflect a more general devaluing of a person's social group
183
What is social categorization?
The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes
- natural and adaptive
184
What are ingroups?
Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity
185
What are outgroups?
Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity
186
What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?
The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups
187
What is identity fusion?
Describes the sense of "oneness" that people may feel with a group
188
What is social dominance orientation?
A desire to see one's in-group as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups
189
What is the system justification theory?
A theory that proposes that people are motivated (at least in part) to defend and justify the existing social, political, and economics decisions
190
What is the stereotype content model?
A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth
191
What are superordinate goals?
A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups
192
What is the realistic conflict theory?
The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources
193
What is relative deprivation?
Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others
194
What is ingroup favouritism?
The tendency to discriminate in favour of in-groups over outgroups
195
What is the social identity theory?
The theory that people favour in-groups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem
196
What are the two components of self-esteem?
(1) a persona identity and (2) various collective or social identities that are based on the groups in which we belong
197
What is shadenfreude?
The experience of pleasure at other people's misfortunes, particularly for celebrities or others we don't feel empathy for
198
What is socialization?
Refers to the process by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group
199
What is the social role theory?
The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women
200
What is an illusory correlation?
An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated
201
What are subliminal presentations?
A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them
202
What is the contact hypothesis?
```
The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce intergroup prejudice under certain conditions
Conditions:
1. equal status
2. personal interaction
3. cooperative activities
4. social norms in support
```
203
How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice?
(1) enhancing knowledge about the outgroup
(2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact
(3) increasing empathy and perspective taking
204
What is the extended contact effect/indirect contact effect?
Knowing that an ingroup friend has a good and close relationship with a member of an outgroup can produce positive intergroup benefits in ways similar to direct contact
205
What is jigsaw classroom?
A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts
206
What does the Common Group Identity Model propose?
If members of different groups recategorize themselves as members of a more inclusive superordinate group, intergroup attitudes and relations can improve
- individuals in minority tend to feel not as positive towards this
207
What does the self-regulation of prejudiced responses model state?
Internally motivated individuals in particular may learn to control their prejudices more effectively over time
208
What is the self-discrepancy theory?
More discrepancy between actual and both others = low SE
- Actual vs. Ought: Guilt, Shame
- Actual vs. Ideal: Disappointed, Frustrated, Sad
209
What is the Dunning-Kruger effect?
- Everyone tends to overestimate their own abilities
- But some do it more than others
- Participants with lowest scores on logic, humour, and grammar were the ones most likely to overestimate their own abilities
210
What are self-serving cognitions?
Take credit for success and distance from failure
| • Protects our esteem as we can blame other things, not us, for failures
211
What is an attitude?
A positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object , or idea
- often automatic and implicit
212
What is an attitude scale?
A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object
213
What is bogus pipeline?
A phone lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions
214
What is a facial electromyograph (EMG)?
An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes
215
What is implicit attitude?
An attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having
216
What is the Implicit Association Test (IAT)?
A covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts- such as black or white with good or bad
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What is evaluative conditioning?
The process by which we form an attitude toward a neutral stimulus because of its association with a positive or negative person, place, or thing
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What is the theory of planned behaviour?
Intention toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, together shape an individual's behavioural intentions and behaviours
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What are subjective norms?
Our beliefs about what others think we should do
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What are the held attitudes that people are most passionate about?
1. Own self-interests
2. Deeply held philosophical, political, and religious values
3. Close friends, family, and social ingroups
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What is persuasion?
The process by which attitudes are changed
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What is the central route to persuasion?
The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments
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What is the peripheral route to persuasion?
The process by which a person doesn't think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues
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What is elaboration?
The process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication
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What is the self-validation hypothesis?
People not only "elaborate" on a persuasive communication, with positive or negative attitude-relevant thoughts; they also seek to assess the validity of these thoughts
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What are the two key attributes to the source?
Credibility and likability
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What are the two key characteristics associated with being credible?
Competence and trustworthiness
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What are the two factors that spark attraction?
Similarity and physical attractiveness
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What is the sleeper effect?
A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a non-credible source
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What is the discounting cue hypothesis?
People immediately discount the arguments made by non-credible communicators, bit over time, they dissociate what was said and who said it
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What is the need for cognition (NC)?
A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities
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What is the need for affect?
Seeking out and enjoying feelings of strong emotion
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What is the inoculation hypothesis?
The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument
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What is psychological reactance?
The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive
- when people think someone is trying to manipulate them, a red flag goes up
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What is the cognitive dissonance theory?
Theory holding that inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce
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What is insufficient justification?
A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behaviour without receiving a large reward
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What is insufficient deterrence?
A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened
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What are the necessary steps for both the arousal and reduction of dissonance?
1. The attitude discrepant behaviour must produce unwanted negative consequences
2. A feeling of personal responsibility for the unpleasant outcomes of behaviour
3. Physiological arousal
4. A person must make an attribution for that arousal to his or her own behaviour
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What is the self-perception theory?
We infer how we feel by observing ourselves and the circumstances of our own behaviour
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What is the impression management theory?
Attitude change is spurred by concerns about self-presentation
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What is behavioural ethics?
The study of how individuals behave when facing temptations to cheat, steal, plagiarize, commit fraud, lie or otherwise behave unethically
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What is ethical dissonance?
Behaving in ways that violate our own moral code threatens our self-esteem and arouses an inner state of turmoil
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What is moral licensing?
A tendency to justify an anticipated misdeed by citing good things that we have done
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What is the overgeneralization hypothesis?
we infer personality characteristics based on similarity of one’s appearance with learned associations (that we see through perceived patterns)
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What is the two step process of impressions?
- Form impression – automatic
| - Correct/update impression for context – takes time and effort to update
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When do strong attitudes predict behaviour?
- People well-informed (or THINK they are)
- When attitudes are from personal experience rather than learned (overwhelming evidence for this)
- After resisting some sort of attack on attitude
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What are qualities of trustworthiness?
speaking quickly and confidently, arguing against own self-interest
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What is a demagogue?
a leader in democracy who gains popularity by exploiting prejudice and ignorance among the common people
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What are the two pieces of information that we need to label what we're feeling according to the 2 factor theory of emotion?
1. Physiological feelings associated with that emotion
| 2. Cognitive interpretation
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What is the face pop-out effect?
humans can detect facial stimuli in an array of noise rather than an animal face
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What is pareidolia?
we see faces and attribute personality where no faces exist
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What is the face in the crowd effect?
since self-directed anger (with eye-gaze) indicates threat, important to detect (and avoid/respond) quickly
