Midterm Discussion Review

Question 1

4) How would Lexico-Statistics decide that two speakers spoke the same language?

Answer 1

Lexico-Statistics would choose 100-200 specific words in two languages. If 81-100% are cognates, they are considered the same language.

Question 2

5) What problem do dialect continuums pose for the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis?

Answer 2

They expose the failure to differentiate between language and dialect, as the shift between languages is gradual.

Question 3

6) Is Scots historically derived from Standard British English (London English)?

Answer 3

No, they are derived from different dialects of Old English.

Question 4

7) What is the political relationship between speakers of London English and speakers of Scots?

Answer 4

London and Scots are part of the same country and share a common ethnicity.

Question 5

(a) informal vocabulary, often not found in dictionaries but used in daily life

Answer 5

Slang

Question 6

(b) a standard variety used by people in a country

Answer 6

Language

Question 7

(c) speech used for a particular activity or a particular social setting

Answer 7

Register

Question 8

(d) an informal variety that doesn’t have a written form

Answer 8

Patois

Question 9

(e) ways of speaking depending on formality: formal vs. informal

Answer 9

Style

Question 10

(f) a distinctive way of pronouncing a language

Answer 10

Accent

Question 11

(g) a variety used by people in a particular region or in a particular social group

Answer 11

Dialect

Question 12

9) Which of the following from (8) has Scots been historically considered? Why do you think that is?

Answer 12

Scots has historically been considered a dialect of English, as both are from the same country and ethnicity, and London English is the standard.

Question 13

10) Why might the movement to declare Scots a language separate from English be occurring now?

Answer 13

It may be occurring due to Brexit and the desire to create Scottish nationalism and push for independence.

Question 14

11) Can you understand the Scots Wikipedia entry? Does this mean it could never be considered a separate language? Why or why not?

Answer 14

I can understand it to an extent. No, it can be considered a separate language because language classification depends on socio-political factors (e.g., Hindi and Urdu are mutually intelligible but are separate languages).

Question 15

12) Why do people find the Scots Wikipedia entry funny?

Answer 15

Encyclopedias usually use the most prestigious standard form of language, and Scots is a dialect, which contrasts with this expectation

Question 16

1. When would a variety be classified as a pidgin?

Answer 16

A variety is classified as a pidgin when it is formed as an emergency language for a contract situation, so there are no native speakers, nor is it a mother tongue.

Question 17

2. Under what circumstances do pidgins form? Give examples from class.

Answer 17

Pidgins form under various circumstances: War (e.g., Bamboo English during WWII), Plantations (e.g., Hawaiian Pidgin by immigrant workers), Trade (e.g., Russonorsk by Russian merchants and Norse fishermen), and Maritime (e.g., Sabir for maritime trade).

Question 18

3. How does the situation under which Nicaraguan Sign Language (ISN) formed resemble the circumstances of the pidgins we discussed in class?

Answer 18

ISN formed because students spoke different languages (home signs) while teachers used Signed Spanish, leading to the necessity for a quick communication method.

Question 19

4. What are some grammatical features of pidgins?

Answer 19

Pidgins have no inflections, simplified pronunciation, small vocabulary (reduplication, polysemy), and simplified grammar.

Question 20

5. What must have been true of the grammar of pidgin LSN (Lenguaje de Signos Nicaragüense)?

Answer 20

LSN’s grammar would have had simplified elements like no inflections, and it would have included features like handshapes, motion patterns, and discreteness (breaking down into smaller motions).

Question 21

6. What would the superstratum and substratum languages be for the pidgin LSN?

Answer 21

The superstratum is Signed Spanish (from school), and the substratum is the sign language used at home (home signs).

Question 22

7. When would a variety be classified as a creole?

Answer 22

A variety is classified as a creole when children grow up speaking it as their mother tongue, and it becomes a fully developed language.

Question 23

8. How do creoles compare to older languages like English?

Answer 23

Creoles have compounding, fewer sounds and sound combinations, and a smaller vocabulary, but they can still express complex ideas and topics.

Question 24

9. How do you think ISN compares to American Sign Language?

Answer 24

ISN is similar to ASL in terms of grammar and vocabulary but is less standardized, with ASL having a larger vocabulary and being considered more sophisticated and prestigious.

Question 25

10. What are the three mysteries of creole creation?

Answer 25

1) How do children create creoles? 2) Why do creoles resemble each other more than they resemble the superstratum and substratum languages? 3) Why are there many Portuguese influences in creoles?

Question 26

11. How does the development of ISN demonstrate these mysteries?

Answer 26

ISN was created by children, shares grammatical features with Spanish, but does not include Portuguese influences, showing the mystery of creole creation.

Question 27

12. Explain the Monogenetic Theory for the origin of creoles.

Answer 27

Sabir, a sailing language from the Middle Ages, is the base for all creoles. Portuguese sailors spread this Sabir/Portuguese hybrid, which was later relexified with the local prestigious language.

Question 28

13. Explain the Universal Grammar Theory for the origin of creoles.

Answer 28

Humans are hardwired to learn language, and when infants hear pidgin (insufficient linguistic input), they set their language parameters to default, explaining common grammar features across creoles.

Question 29

14. Which theory does the creation of ISN support? Why?

Answer 29

ISN supports the Universal Grammar Theory because there were no Portuguese-Sabir hybrids in the school, and the grammatical features of ISN are shared across other creoles.

Question 30

Consider the following statements: are these speakers bilingual? What does it mean to be bilingual?

Answer 30

All four speakers are bilingual. Bilingual means fluency in 2 or more languages and being comfortable speaking, reading, and writing in both.

Question 31

2. What is demonstrated in Spivey and Marion (1999)? In Hull and Vaid (2007)?

Answer 31

Spivey and Marion (1999): Both languages are constantly active in the brain, as demonstrated by eye-tracking moments with simultaneous bilinguals. Hull and Vaid (2007): L1 languages acquired before age 6 build up bilaterally, while L2 acquired after age 6 is used more on the left brain hemisphere.

Question 32

3. Is Mario Fantini an additive or subtractive bilingual? Is he balanced or unbalanced, and which language is dominant? By what method was he raised bilingual?

Answer 32

Mario Fantini is an additive, unbalanced bilingual, with English as dominant now, but Spanish was his dominant language as a child. He was raised bilingual using the minority language at home strategy.

Question 33

4. How did the community surrounding Mario and his father Alvino’s first language affect their language outcomes?

Answer 33

The community viewed Alvino’s Italian as non-prestigious, leading to discouragement in speaking it. Mario perceived his bilingualism positively because of community support.

Question 34

5. Mario is doing well in an English-monolingual classroom at school. What factors might be helping him succeed?

Answer 34

His parents supported bilingual education and opposed speech therapy, and their socioeconomic status is wealthy.

Question 35

6. Why was Mario making unusual mistakes in English, and why was his teacher concerned?

Answer 35

Mario made mistakes because of Spanish-dominance and phonological deviations. The teacher was concerned due to limited language resources and believed Mario was using cognitive resources in Spanish.

Question 36

7. What kind of bilinguals are the Caldas children (simultaneous/sequential, balanced/unbalanced, additive/subtractive)? By what method were they raised bilingual?

Answer 36

The Caldas children are simultaneous, unbalanced, additive bilinguals. They were raised with one parent speaking one language, then both parents switched to speaking French at home due to concerns about language input.

Question 37

8. How do peers regard John’s bilingualism? How has this influenced his language use?

Answer 37

Peers view John’s bilingualism as cool or uncool depending on the environment. Around French speakers, he speaks French, while in Louisiana, he prefers English due to social pressure.

Question 38

9. John and his sisters use French and English at different rates. What is the usual pattern for older/younger siblings? What influences this in the Caldas family?

Answer 38

Usually, older siblings use the minority language more, but in the Caldas family, the younger siblings are influenced by peers, leading to more English use.

Question 39

10. What kind of bilinguals are the Matthews children (Timmy, Sophie, Alicia)? By what method were they raised bilingual?

Answer 39

The Matthews children are simultaneous, unbalanced, and additive bilinguals. They were raised using one parent language and later started using the minority language at home.

Question 40

11. How does the community perceive the Matthews children’s bilingualism? How has this influenced their language outcomes?

Answer 40

The community views English as prestigious, and the children practice it, influenced by the high social value placed on English.

Question 41

12. Do the Matthews children mix their languages? Is this harmful cognitive dissonance? Why or why not?

Answer 41

The Matthews children mix languages, but this is not harmful cognitive dissonance; it is normal, as adults also mix languages.

Question 42

13. What can be done to encourage children to grow up bilingual?

Answer 42

Creating a positive environment with lots of exposure to both languages, fostering community learning, and promoting additive bilingualism.

Question 43

14. Is it beneficial or detrimental to raise children in these studies in two languages?

Answer 43

It depends on the environment. Raising children bilingually can be beneficial in the right supportive context.

Question 44

) How proficient are the people interviewed in both English and Spanish?

Answer 44

They are very proficient because they can code-switch.

Question 45

2) Which language would be these speakers’ ‘we’ language? Which is their ‘they’ language?

Answer 45

The "we" language is Spanish, and the "they" language is English.

Question 46

3) Can you find an example of insertion/intra-sentential code-switching? Which language does the grammar appear to be in?

Answer 46

Example: "Hablo un mix de los dos languages." The grammar is Spanish.

Question 47

a) Does your example follow the grammar rules we discussed in class?

Answer 47

Yes, it follows the grammatical structure of Spanish while inserting the English word "mix" and "languages."

Question 48

4) Find an example of someone describing code-switching for stylistic reasons.

Answer 48

Gustavo Perez Firmat said English is concise and efficient, while Spanish is flavorful. He switches to Spanish to express his behavior better.

Question 49

5) Find an example of someone describing code-switching for convenience reasons.

Answer 49

The English word "parking" is used as "Tarquin" instead of "estacionamiento" since it is shorter to say.

Question 50

6) Find an example of someone describing code-switching for cultural identity reasons.

Answer 50

Ms. Haubegger, 28, owner of the magazine company Latina, believes that writing in Spanglish captures the culture of their readers and helps them feel represented.

Question 51

7) In what domain(s) do the speakers describe code-switching? Remember that domains can be described by their addressee(s), setting, and topic.

Answer 51

Code-switching occurs when speaking with other bilinguals, in informal settings like close relationships, talk shows, magazines, music lyrics, and when describing emotions.