Midterm Exam Flashcards
. (85 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of Science?
A
Studying the structure of physical and natural world with observation and experiment.
2
Q
What is a key element of science?
A
Empiricism
3
Q
Who is often considered the ‘father of Science’?
A
Thales of Miletus
4
Q
What significant contributions did Eratosthenes make?
A
Measured the size of the earth using two sticks.
5
Q
What does the term ‘Renaissance’ refer to? and why is it important
A
A rebirth
era of rediscover science/ math again
6
Q
What is the Scientific Method?
A
A regulated approach to have
1. observation
2. measurement
3. rational analysis.
7
Q
What did Copernicus propose?
A
Earth is not at the center of the universe.
8
Q
Who is known as the father of modern physics?
A
Galileo
9
Q
What theory did Charles Darwin develop?
A
Theory of evolution
10
Q
What is Epistemology?
A
The science of knowing.
11
Q
Fill in the blank: ________ is a subset of epistemology that focuses on how we find out what we know.
A
Methodology
12
Q
What are the problems associated with Tradition as a source of knowledge?
A
-Prejudice
-Close-mindedness
13
Q
What is the pro and con of relying on Authority?
A
- Pros: Trusting expert judgment can help
- Cons: Authority can make mistakes and abuse their position.
14
Q
What are 4 common errors in individual inquiry?
I.O.S.I
A
- Inaccurate observations
- Overgeneralization
- Selective observation
- Illogical reasoning
15
Q
What is a key focus of social research?
A
Finding patterns in social life.
16
Q
What does ‘Value-free’ mean in the context of social theory?
A
Not letting personal values distort objectivity.
17
Q
Define ‘aggregate’ in social research.
A
A collection of individuals
- I.E. we study a collection of individuals
18
Q
What is the distinction between Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation?
A
-Idiographic: individual, case-by-case behaviours
-Nomothetic: Applyys to larger groups.
19
Q
What does Induction involve in research?
A
No prior theory; large observations
20
Q
What is Deduction in research?
A
Using specific predictions.
21
Q
What type of data does Quantitative research focus on?
A
Numerical data.
22
Q
What type of data does Qualitative research focus on?
A
Non-numerical data.
23
Q
What is the primary goal of human inquiry?
A
To explain.
24
Q
True or False: Science seeks to protect us from errors of individual observation.
A
True
25
What is the importance of careful observation in science?
To make observations deliberately to be accuret
26
explain the historical flow of scientific advancement
it gradually increased till the Christian dark age, where it extremely decreased but spiked in renaissance age
27
Greek Humanism
Focus on human reason rather supernatural forces
| the world is knowable by humans through rational thought
28
St. Thomas Aquinas
natural theolog
Move away from religion
29
Francis Bacon
We need observation and rational analysis to study the world
30
scientific enterprise consists of 3 things
1. Theory
2. Data Collection
3. Data Analysis
31
Theory
A explanation for observations
32
3 DIALECTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
A. Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation
B. Inductive and Deductive Theory
C. Quantitative and Qualitative Data
33
What is conceptualization in social research?
A agreement about what concepts mean
34
What is an indicator in research?
An observation we see bc of a variable
35
What does operationalization refer to?
The process of going from abstract to concrete
36
What are the two necessary characteristics of a variable?
1. Attributes linked to a variable should be exhaustive.
2. mutually exclusive.
37
What are the four levels of measurement?
| N.O.I.R.
* Nominal
* Ordinal
* Interval
* Ratio
38
What defines nominal measurement?
Variables are only jointly exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
39
What is an example of ordinal measurement?
Social class, conservatism, or prejudice.
40
What is the key characteristic of interval measurement?
can be logically ranked
41
What distinguishes ratio measurement from other levels?
Has a true zero point.
42
What is the test-retest method?
A method to verify reliability by making the same measurement more than once.
43
What does validity refer to in measurement?
Empirical measure adequately reflects the study
44
What are the types of validity?
* Face validity
* Criteria-related validity
* Construct validity
* Content validity
45
What is the main benefit of using an index in research?
Captures multidimensional constructs ideal for measuring complex phenomena.
46
What is a scale in measurement?
Having logical structure
47
What is the difference between indexes and scales?
* Indexes are constructed by accumulating scores assigned to individual measures.
* Scales focus on a unidimensional trait with closely related items.
48
Fill in the blank: The process of regarding things that are not real as real is called _______.
reification.
49
True or False: Indicators for one concept should behave differently when the concept is observed.
False.
50
What does the Kahneman & Deaton (2010) study suggest about happiness and income?
Happiness plateaus at ~$70,000 income.
51
What was a limitation of the Kahneman & Deaton method for measuring happiness?
85% said yes to all happiness questions, masking subtle differences.
52
What is perceived job insecurity defined as?
A perceived powerlessness to maintain desired continuity in a threatened job situation.
53
What scale did Glavin & Young use to measure psychological distress?
Kessler’s K10 distress scale.
54
What is the purpose of operationalization in research?
To define how abstract concepts will be measured concretely.
55
What is the process of selecting observations called?
Sampling
## Footnote
Sampling is crucial for data collection in research.
56
Define 'Population' in the context of sampling.
Any entire collection of people, groups, organizations or things from which we may collect data
## Footnote
Examples include Canadian workers or McMaster students.
57
What is a 'Sample'?
A group of units selected from a larger group (the population)
## Footnote
E.g. 100 McMaster students that completed an online survey.
58
What is an 'Element' in sampling?
What is selected in a sample
## Footnote
An example is an individual person.
59
What are the two major types of sampling?
* Nonprobability Sampling
* Probability Sampling
60
Define Nonprobability Sampling.
Sampling that relies on available subjects
## Footnote
Examples include purposive sampling, snowball sampling, quota sampling, and selecting informants.
61
What is Probability Sampling?
random sampling : everything has the same chance of being selected
## Footnote
Helps produce samples that are representative of the wider population.
62
What does 'Random Sampling' refer to?
Every unit of observation in a population has the same chance of being selected into a sample.
63
What is the significance of probability sampling?
It allows us to measure the degree of error (sampling error) in our estimates.
64
What is the equal probability of selection method (EPSEM)?
All members of a given population should stand an equal chance of being selected for a sample.
65
Why are bigger samples preferred in sampling?
Bigger samples produce smaller sampling error
## Footnote
There is a diminishing return to larger samples.
66
What is a sampling frame?
A list of elements where a sample is drawn.
67
Name an example of a sampling frame.
McMaster directory of all undergraduate students.
68
What is simple random sampling?
A sampling method where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
69
What is systematic sampling?
A method where a sampling interval is used to select members from a population
## Footnote
E.g., sampling every 10th student.
70
Define stratified sampling.
Divided population into sub groups based on characteristics
71
What is multistage cluster sampling?
Population is divided into smaller groups and ppl are selected from that when groups get smaller
72
What is the general guideline for cluster sampling?
Maximize the number of clusters while decreasing the number of elements within each cluster.
73
What does probability proportionate to size (PPS) mean?
Probability of a cluster selected based on its size.
74
What is disproportionate sampling?
Oversampling certain groups to enable sufficient sample size for analysis.
75
What are online panels in the context of non-probability sampling?
Registered members who voluntarily participate in surveys, forming a diverse but self-selected group.
76
What is weighting in survey analysis?
A statistical technique used to adjust the results of a sample to better reflect the overall population.
77
If the weight assigned to a survey response is above 1, what does it indicate?
The group is underrepresented in the sample and their response is given extra importance.
78
If the weight assigned to a survey response is below 1, what does it indicate?
The group is overrepresented in the sample and their response is given less importance.
79
Causality
Wheater a factor has a influence over our studying element
80
Causality needs to meet all 3 conditions
1. Temporal Order
2. Co-variation (association or correlation)
- there is a pattern
- But: correlation ≠ causation
3. Non-spuriousness
MORE DIFFICULT
81
Experiment
Under controlled conditions to test hypothesis
82
Two features of experiments help establish causality
1. Manipulation of the IV
2. Random assignment to levels of the IV
83
Asch (1955) Line Study
asked to judge line length
1 real participant: 7 hired ones
conclusion: the real participant will conform to the others
84
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