Midterm One Flashcards
(142 cards)
1
Q
Comparative anatomy
A
study of more than one species to analyze evolutionary trends
2
Q
palpation
A
physical examination by touching
3
Q
auscultation
A
listening with stethoscope
4
Q
percussion
A
tapping with fingers
5
Q
gross anatomy
A
visible with naked eye
6
Q
histology
A
examination of cells with microscope
7
Q
physiology
A
the study of function
8
Q
anatomy
A
the study of form
9
Q
inductive method
A
First described by Francis Bacon. making observations until capable of drawing generalizations and making predictions.
10
Q
hypothetico-deductive method
A
ask a question and formulate a hypothesis
11
Q
Anatomy and physiology are products of which respective methods?
A
inductive and hypothetic-deductive
12
Q
experimental design
A
sample size, control and treatment groups (placebo), experimenter bias (double blind), stats
13
Q
scientific fact
A
information that can be independently verified by any trained person
14
Q
law of nature
A
description of the way matter and energy behave resulting from inductive reasoning and repeated observations
15
Q
theory
A
summary of conclusions drawn from observable facts - explanations and predictions
16
Q
evolution
A
change in genetic composition of a population of organisms
17
Q
theory of natural selection
A
some individuals have hereditary advantages (adaptations) that let them reproduce more, pass these onto their offspring to change the genetic population (evolution)
18
Q
selection pressures
A
forces that favor some individuals over others: climate, disease
19
Q
examples of anatomical variation
A
missing organs, more or less organs, variation in organ location
20
Q
situs inversus
A
major visceral organs are reversed in position
21
Q
dextrocardia
A
heart points toward right side of body
22
Q
situs perversus
A
mal position of ANY organ
23
Q
reference man
A
22 yo, 154 lbs, light physical activity, 2800 kcal/day
24
Q
reference woman
A
22 yo, 128 lbs, light physical activity, 2000kcal/day
25
who coined the term homeostasis
Walter Cannon - indicated stable internal environment
26
dynamic equilbrium
fluctuates within a range around a certain set point
27
loss of homeostatic control?
illness or death
28
external stimuli
intense heat, cold, hypoxia
29
internal stimuli
psychological stresses, exercise
30
blood gas level control
exercise increases CO2 levels in blood, sensory receptors detect change, nervous system increases HR and breathing rate to remove excess CO2, adrenal gland releases epi to increase HR and breathing rates
31
blood temperature control
vasodilation when hot, vasoconstriction when cold
32
negative feedback examples
blood pressure, blood sugar, pH, osmotic concentration
33
receptor and example
structure that senses change. stretch receptors in heart and large blood vessels send info of an elevated BP to inegrator
34
integrator and example
control center. cardiac center in brainstem that signals heart to slow
35
effector and example
structures that carry out commands of control center. heart slows and BP decreases, sweating begins and evaporation cools body
36
positive feedback
physiological change that leads to an even greater change in the same direction (self-amplifying). way to produce rapid changes
37
positive feedback examples
birth.
1. head of fetus pushes against cervix
2. nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain
3. brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin
4. oxytocin carried in bloodstream to uterus
5. oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus towards cervix
blood clotting, protein digestion, generation of nerve signals
38
eponyms
structures named after people
39
nomina anatomica
rejected all eponyms and gave each structure a unique Latin name to be used worldwide
40
Terminologia Anatomica
codified in 1998
41
atomic number
number of protons
42
atomic mass
protons + neutrons
43
valence electrons
outermost shell, interact with other atoms, determine chemical behavior, octet rule
44
anion
negatively charged
45
catio
positively charged
46
electrolytes
salts that ionize water, form solutions capable of conducting electricity
47
most abundant electrolytes in body?
sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and carbonate
48
what are electrolytes used for?
nerve and muscle function. IMbalance can lead to muscle cramps, brittle bones or coman and death
49
free radical
a particle with an odd number of electrons (ex. superoxide anion ) O2-
50
what are free radicals produced by?
metabolic reactions, radiation, chemicals
51
what do free radicals do to the body?
causes tissue damage by triggering chain reactions that destroy molecules
52
antioxidants
neutralize free radicals (superoxide dismutase enzyme, vitamin E, C, carotenoids
53
ionic bond
relatively weak attraction between anion and cation, easily disrupted by water
54
covalent bond
sharing of one or more electron pairs between nuclei
55
nonpolar covalent
electrons equally distributed between two nuclei. Strongest type of chemical bond
56
polar covalent
electrons unequally distributed between nuclei resulting in slightly positive and slightly negative ends
57
hydrogen bond
weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Used in folding of molecules, between nucleotides in DNA
58
solvency
the ability to dissolve matter
59
hydrophilic
charged substances that dissolve easily in water
60
hydrophobic
neutral substances that do not easily dissolve in water
61
water
universal solvent, important for metabolic reactions and transport of substances
62
polarity of water
uneven sharing of valence e-; partial negative near O and partial positive near H atoms
63
why does polarity benefit water?
makes it a good solvent for ionic or polar substances, gives water molecules cohesion and allows water to moderate temperature changes
64
water as a solvent
polar covalent bonds, can interact with 4 or more neighboring ions/molecules
65
hydrolysis reaction
water added to a large molecule to split it up ex. digestion of food
66
dehydration reaction
two small molecules brought together to synthesize larger molecule releasing water (peptide synthesis)
67
What does it mean for water to have a high heat capacity?
can absorb a lot of heat with only a small increase in its own temperature due to the the large number of H bonds in water (these bonds are broken instead of raising temperature)
68
heat of vaporization for water
also high - evaporation of water from the skin removes large amount of heat
69
cohesion
hydrogen bonds linking nearby water molecules
70
what does cohesion result in?
high surface tension, difficult to break the surface of liquid
71
respiratory problems caused by waters cohesive property
air sacs of lungs are more difficult to inflate
72
how does water act as a lubricant in the body?
mucus in respiratory and digestive systems, synovial fluid in joints, serous fluids in chest and abdominal cavities
73
acid
proton donor
74
base
proton acceptor
75
pH
concentration of H+ ions in a solution, -log[H+]
76
what are reaction rates affected by?
concentration, temperature and catalysts
77
how does concentration affect reaction rate?
more concentrated = more collisions = faster rxn
78
how does temperature affect reaction rate?
higher temperature = greater collision force = faster rxn
79
how do catalysts affect reaction rate?
speed up reactions without permanent change to itself, lower activation energy
80
organic molecules
carbon compounds and functional groups (lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleotides and nuclei acids)
81
common molecules with hydroxyl groups
sugars, alcohols
82
common molecules with methyl groups
fats, oils, steroids, amino acids
83
common molecules with carboxyl groups
amino acids, sugars, proteins
84
common molecules with amino groups
amino acids, proteins
85
common molecules with phosphate group
nucleic acids, ATP
86
dehydration synthesis
monomers bond together to form a polymer with the removal of a water. usually anabolic and endergonic
87
hydrolysis
splitting of polymer by the addition of a water molecule; catabolic and usually exergonic
88
oxidation
molecule releases electrons and energy, often as H atoms
89
reduction
molecule accepts electrons and gains chemical energy
90
carbohydrates
hydrophilic organic molecule. (CH2O)n act as a form of energy
91
monosaccharides
simplest carbohydrates
92
what are the three major monosaccharides?
glucose, galactose and fructose
93
disaccharides
pairs of monosaccharides
94
three major disaccharides?
sucrose, lactose, maltose
95
sucrose
fructose and glucose
96
lactose
galactose and glucose
97
fructose
glucose and glucose
98
polysaccharides
starch, cellulose and glycogen
99
starch
produced by plants is digested by amylase
100
cellulose
gives structure to plants, fiber to our diet (we can't break it down)
101
glycogen
energy storage polysaccharides, synthesized by liver after meal
102
where are glycolipids found?
external surface of cell membrane
103
where are glycoproteins found?
external surface of cell membrane, mucus of respiratory and digestive tracts
104
where are proteoglycans found?
carbohydrate component domain, cell adhesion, gelatinous filler of tissues and lubricates joints
105
lipids
hydrophobic organic molecule. less oxidized that carbs, have more calories per fram
106
fatty acids
chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms between a carboxyl group and a methyl group
107
saturated
no double bonds
108
unsaturated
double bonds
109
triglyceride synthesis
three fatty acids bonded to glycerol by dehydration synthesis. Become a neutral fat
110
lipase
hydrolyzes fats
111
phospholipids
amphiphilic character with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads
112
eicosanoid and example
derived by arachidonic acid (a fatty acid). Prostaglandins (inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, control of blood vessel diameter)
113
what is the function of eicosanoids?
chemical signals between cells
114
steroids
derived from cholesterol
115
functions of steroids?
proper nervous system function and important component for cell membrane fluidity
116
proteins
polymer of amino acids
117
amino acids
determine structure and function of proteins
118
primary structure
amino acid sequence
119
secondary structure
a-helices and beta-pleated sheets held together by H bonds
120
tertiary structure
interaction of large segments to each other and surrounding water (hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions) - disulfide bridges and ionic bridges also
121
quaternary structure
two or more separate polypeptide chains interacting
122
conjugated protein
contain a non-amino acid moiety called a prosthetic group
123
hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains, each chain has a complex iron ring with a heme moiety
124
protein conformation
overall 3D shape is crucial to function, they have an ability to change this to carry out their function
125
denaturation
drastic conformational change that destroys protein function
126
functions of proteins
structure, communication, membrane transport, catalysis, recognition and protection, movement and cell adhesion
127
what are some structural proteins?
collagen and keratin
128
ligand
molecule that reversibly binds to a protein
129
how do proteins aid in membrane transport?
can form channels and act as carriers
130
what proteins are involved in recognition and protection?
glycoprotein antigens, antibodies and clotting proteins
131
enzymes
function as biological catalysts by lowering activation energy, also help to properly orient colliding molecules
132
enzyme naming convention
now named with their substrate with -ase as suffix
133
enzymes are...
highly specific, very efficient and under nuclear control
134
active sute
area on enzyme that attracts and binds a substrate
135
enzyme-substrate complex
temporarily changes a substrates conformation, promoting reactions to occur
136
enzyme-substrate specificity
active site is specific for a particular substrate
137
effects of temperature and pH on enzymes
change reaction rate by altering enzyme shape
138
cofactors
nonprotein partners that can bind and change enzyme shape creating an active site; often necessary
139
coenzymes
organic cofactors from water soluble vitamins
140
what is the cofactor for coenzyme A?
pantothenic acid (coenzyme A synthesizes triglycerides and ATP
141
what is the cofactor for NAD+ and FAD?
niacin in NAD+ and riboflavin (B2) in FAD
142
galactosemia
inherited disorder, baby lacks digestive enzyme, galactose accumulates in blood causing anorexia (body thinks it is full, but actually none of this is being turned into useful glucose because the enzyme is not there), treatment is elimination of milk from the diet
