Midterm one Flashcards
(170 cards)
1
Q
alleles
A
genes come in different forms known as alleles.
ex - in the case of red blood cells, one of two alleles can be present on a chromosome. one alleles has instructions for normal-shaped red blood cells and the other has instructions for sicke-shaped red blood cells.
2
Q
autosomes
A
the first pair of chromosomes
3
Q
behavioural genetics
A
is the branch of genetics that deals with inheritance of behavioural and psychological traits
4
Q
chromosomes?
A
tiny structures in the nucleus that contain genetic material
5
Q
deoxyribonucleic acid
A
DNA - resembles a spiral staircase, rungs of each staircase carry the genetic code
6
Q
dizygotic twins (fraternal)
A
come from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm
- on average about half of their genes are the same
7
Q
dominant
A
often one alleles is dominant, which means that its chemical instructions are followed, whereas the instructions of other, the recessive allele are ignored.
8
Q
Down Syndrome
A
a genetic disorder that is caused by an extra 21st chromosome and that results in intellectual disability
- almond-shaped eyes and a fold over the eyelid, head neck and nose usually smaller than normal
9
Q
epigenesis
A
continuous interplay between genes and multiple levels of the environment (from cells to culture) that drives development
10
Q
gene
A
each group of nucleotide bases that provides a specific set of biochemical instructions
11
Q
genotype
A
the complete set of genes that makes up a person’s heredity
12
Q
hemophilia
A
a disorder in which the blood does not clot easily and sufferers can bleed severely with even minor injury, the gene is carried on the x chromosome
13
Q
heritability coefficient
A
estimates the extent to which differences between people reflect heredity
14
Q
heterozygous
A
alleles that differ
15
Q
homozygous
A
alleles in a pair of chromosomes are the same
16
Q
Huntington’s disease
A
a fatal disease characterized by progressive degeneration of the nervous system
17
Q
incomplete dominance
A
sometimes on allele does not dominate another completely
18
Q
in vitro fertilization
A
involves mixing sperm and egg together in a laboratory dish and then placing a few of those fertilized eggs into the mothers uterus
19
Q
monozygotic twins (identical)
A
come from a single fertilized egg that splits in 2
20
Q
methylation
A
some experiences change the expression of DNA - the genetic code is preserved but some genes are “turned off”
- the chemical silencer is a methyl molecule
21
Q
niche-picking
A
the process of deliberately seeking environments that fit one’s heredity
- ex: extroverted children seek socially stimulating environments that make them even more out going
22
Q
non-shared environmental influences
A
the environmental influences that make siblings differ from one another
23
Q
phenotype
A
an individuals’s physical, behavioural, and psychological features
- produced from genetic instructions, in conjunction with environmental influences
24
Q
polygenic inheritance
A
phenotypes distributed like this often reflect the combined activity of many separate genes
25
reaction range
the range of phenotypes that the same genotype may produce in reaction to the environment where development takes place
26
sex chromosomes
the 23rd pair determines
the sex of the child
- XX = girl
- XY = boy
27
sex linked
where the gene causing the disorder is is carried on one of the sex chromosomes
- ex: hemophilia carried on the X chromosome
28
sickle-cell trait
individuals with one dominant and one recessive allele
29
age of viability
22 to 28 weeks
| - most systems function well enough that a fetus born at this time has a chance to survive
30
amniocentesis
a needle is inserted through the mother's abdomen to obtain a sample of the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus
- typically performed at apx 16 weeks after conception
31
amniotic fluid
cushions the embryo and maintains a constant temperature within the amniotic sac
32
amniotic sac
What the embryo rests in filled with amniotic fluid
33
Apgar score
a measure devised by obstetrical anesthesiologist Virginia Apgar, is used to evaluate a newborn baby's condition
34
basic cry
starts softly and then gradually becomes more intense and usually occurs when a baby is hungry or tired
35
blastocyst
after about four days, the zygote comprises about 100 cells, resembles a hollow ball
36
breech presentation
when babies come out feet or bottom first rather than head first
37
C-section
an incision made in the abdomen to remove the baby from the uterus
- higher risk for mothers because of increased bleeding and risk of infection
38
Cerebral cortex
during the period of the fetus, all regions of the brain grow, particularly the cerebral cortex - the wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many important human behaviours
39
Chorionic villus sampling
a sample of tissue is obtained from the chorion ( a part of the placenta) and analyzed.
- CVS is preferable because it can be done at 10 to 12 weeks, about 6 weeks earlier than amniocentesis techniques
- used when a genetic disorder is suspected
40
Crowning
when the top of the baby's head appears (happens within the second stage of labour)
41
doubla
is a person familiar with child birth who is not part of the medical staff but instead provides emotional and physical support throughout labour and delivery
42
Ectoderm
the outer layer, will become hair, and the outer layer of skin and the nervous system
43
Embryo
once the blastocyst is completely embedded in the uterine wall, it is called an embryo
44
Endoderm
the inner layer
| - will form the digestive system and the lungs
45
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
caused by women who consume large quantities of alcoholic beverages
- most extreme form, fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is most common among women who are heavy recreational drinkers (women who drink five or more ounces a few times each week)
46
Fetal medicine
a new field that is developing which focuses on treating prenatal problems before birth
47
genetic engineering
replacing defective genes with synthetic normal genes
| - ex: replacing defective sickle-cells with those who have sickle-cell disease
48
germ disc
a small cluster of cells near the centre of the blastocyst, eventually develops into a baby
49
hypoxia
a birth complication where the flow of blood through the umbilical cord is disrupted, causing infants to not receive adequate oxygen
- occurs during labour and delivery because the umbilical cord is pinched or squeezed shut, cutting off the flow of blood to the baby
- can lead to developmental disabilities and sometimes death
50
implantation
the blastocyst burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with the mother's blood vessels
51
infant mortality
refers to the number of infants out of 1000 births who die before their first birthdays
- global infant mortality rate has been gradually declining over the past few decades
52
Kangaroo care
position in which infants dressed only in diaper are held against an adult's bare chest in a sling or blanket, has been popularized in Canadian neonatal units.
- used with premature and special care infants to give skin to skin contact and positive stimulation, also reduced pain responses to the heel-prick in full term babies
53
mad cry
is a more intense version of a basic cry
54
mesoderm
the middle layer
| - will form muscles, bones and the circulatory system
55
non-REM (regular) sleep
breathing, heart rate and brain activity are steady, and newborns lie quietly without the twitching associated with REM sleep
56
pain cry
begins with a sudden, long shriek, followed by a long pause and gasping cry
57
period of the fetus
the final and longest phase of parental development, extends from the ninth week after conception until birth
58
placenta
the layer of cells closet to the uterus becomes the placenta, a structure for exchanging nutrients and wastes between the mother and the developing organism
59
postpartum depression
for 10-15 percent of new mothers, irritability continues for months and is often accompanied by feelings of low-self worth, disturbed sleep, poor appetite, and apathy
60
premature infants
babies born less then 37 weeks after conception
61
prenatal development
the changes that transform a fertilized egg into a newborn human make up prenatal development
- takes an average of 38 weeks, which is divided into three stages: (1) zygote, (2) embryo, (3) fetus
62
rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep (irregular sleep)
newborns move their arms and legs, they may grimace, and their eyes may move about beneath their eyelids
63
reflexes
unlearned responses that are triggered by a specific from stimulation
- ex: stepping, rooting, withdrawal, sucking
64
small-for-date infants
infants are substantially smaller than would be expected based on the length of time since conception
- infants can go the full 9 months to term and still be small-for-date
65
social influence
refers to events set in motion when a teen girl gives birth, events that make it harder for her to provide a positive environment for her child development
- ex: she may drop out, thus limiting her employment opportunities
66
social selection
some teenage girls are more likely than others to become pregnant, and the same factors that cause girls to become pregnant may put their children at risk
- ex: girls with conduct disorder-who often lie and break rules are more likely to become pregnant, this disorder does not bode well for effective parenting
67
spina bifida
happens when mothers do not consume adequate amounts of folic acid
- a disorder in which the embryo's neural tube does not close properly during the first month of pregnancy, resulting in permeant damage to the spinal cord and the nervous system
68
stress
the impact of prenatal development of chronic stress - which refers to a person's physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging situations
- women who report greater anxiety during pregnancy more often gave birth early or have babies who weigh less than average
69
sudden unexpected infant death syndrome (SUIDS)
a healthy baby dies suddenly, for no apparent reason
| - scientist do not know the exact causes of SUIDs
70
swaddling
a useful technique in which an infant is wrapped tightly in a blanket
- provides warmth and tactile stimulation that usually works well to soothe a baby
71
teratogen
an agent that causes abnormal prenatal development
72
ultrasound
a procedure using sound waves to generate a picture of the fetus
- a standard part of prenatal care in Canada
73
umbilical cord
houses blood vessels that join the embryo to the placenta
74
vernix
the skin thicken and is covered with a thick greasy substance called the vernix, which protects the fetus during its long bath in the amniotic fluid
- occurs during fifth and sixth months after conception
75
villi
finger like projections from the umbilical blood vessels
- villi lie close in proximity to the mother's blood vessels and this allow nutrients, oxygen, vitamins and waste products to be exchanged between mother and embryo
76
zygote
when the fertilized egg implants itself in the wall of the uterus
- weeks 1-2
in these weeks the zygote grows rapidly through cell division
77
anorexia nervosa
is a disorder marked by a persistent refusal to eat and an irrational fear of being overweight
- individuals with this disorder have distorted imagines of there own bodies
78
axon
- the tube like structure at the end of the cell body
| - sends informations to the other to other neurons. the axon is wrapped in myelin
79
body dysmorphic disorder
individuals are not satisfied with their body shape or the shape of a particular part of the body, and perceived muscularity is often the focus
- those suffering will see themselves as weak and develop very specific diet and exercise in attempt to improve this
80
body mass index (BMI)
an adjusted ratio of weight to height
| - the technical definition for being overweight is based on this
81
bulimia nervosa
a disorder where individuals alternate between binge eating, when they eat uncontrollably, and purging - through self-induced vomiting or with laxatives
- frequency varies among people from a few times a week to more then 30 times a week
82
cell body
- at the centre of the neuron contains basic biological machinery that keeps the neuron alive
83
cephalocaudal
means "head to tail'
| - One of the 2 trends Growth follows
84
cerebral cortex
- the wrinkled surface of the brain, made up of about 10 billion neurons; the cortex regulates many of the functions that we think of as directly human
- the cortex consists of left and right halves, called hemispheres
85
corpus callosum
- the cortex consists of left and right halves, called hemispheres that are linked by millions of axons in a thick bundle called the corpus callosum
86
dendrite
the receiving end of the neuron, the dendrite, looks like a tree with many branches
- the highly branched dendrite allows one neuron to receive input from many thousands of other neurons
87
electroencephalography (EEG)
- involves measuring the brain's electrical activity from electrodes placed on the scalp
88
epiphyses
bone begins to form during the prenatal development, starting as cartilage, a soft, flexible tissue. during the embryonic period, the centre of the tissue turns to bone, then shortly before birth, the ends of the cartilage structures turn to bone
89
experience-dependent growth
denotes change in the brain that are not linked to specific points in development and that vary across individuals and not across cultures
90
experience-expectant growth
- influenced by environmental input
- over the course of evolution, human infants have typically been exposed to some forms of stimulation that are used to adjust brain wiring, strengthening some circuits and eliminating others
91
frontal cortex
your personality and your ability to make and carry out plans are largely functions of an area at the front of your cortex
92
functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)
uses magnetic fields to track the flow of blood in the brain
- brain is surrounded by an incredibly powerful magnet that can track blood flow in the brain as participants preform different cognitive tasks
93
growth hormone
sleep is essential for normal growth because about 80 percent of the hormone that stimulates growth is secreted while children and adolescents sleep (growth hormone)
94
hemisphere
the cortex consists of left and right halves, called hemisphere that are linked by millions of axons
95
malnutrition
- worldwide about one in three children under the age of 5 suffers from malnutrition
- very damaging in the infancy years because growth is so rapid
96
menarche
the onset of menstruation typically occurs at about age 13
| - early menstrual cycles are usually irregular and without ovulation
97
myelin
a fatty sheath that allows it to transmit information more rapidly
- wrapped around the axon
98
neutral plate
at roughly three weeks after conception, a group of cells form a flat structure known as the neural plate
- at 4 weeks the neutral plate flods to form a tube that ultimately becomes the brain and spinal cord.
99
neuron
a cell that specializes in receiving and transmitting information
- the basic unit of the brain and the rest of the nervous system
100
neurotransmitters
chemicals that carry information to nearby neurons
101
osteoporosis
a disease in which a person's bones become thin and brittle and as a consequence, sometimes break.
- can strike at nay age but people over 50 are at greatest risk
102
primary sex characteristics
refers to organs that are directly involved in reproduction
| - including: uterus, and vagina in girls and the scrotum, testes, and penis in boys
103
proximodistal
means from close to further out
| - One of the 2 trends Growth follows
104
puberty
the biological start of adolescence
| - refers to the adolescent growth spurt and sexual maturation
105
secondary sex characteristics
physical signs of maturity that are not linked directly to the reproductive organs
- including: the growth of breasts and the widening of the pelvis in girls, the appearance of facial hair and the broadening in shoulders in boys, and the appearance of body hair and changes in voice and skin in both boys and girls
106
secular growth trends
changes in physical development from one generation to the next
107
spermarche
at about age 13, most boys reach spermarche, the first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm-laden fluid
- initial ejaculations often contain relatively few sperm, only months or sometimes years later there is sufficient sperm to fertilize an egg
108
synapse
the gap between one neuron and the next is a synapse
| - neurotransmitters cross synapses to carry information between neurons
109
synaptic pruning
soon after synapses begin to disappear gradually in a phenomenon known as synaptic pruning
- thus beginning in infancy and continuing into early adolescence
110
terminal buttons
at the end of the axon are small knobs called terminal buttons, which release neurotransmitters
111
amodal
it can be presented in different senses
ex - mother claps her hands in time to the music, the sounds of the claps, as well as the appearance of the hands coming together and moving apart, provide cues to the tempo of the music
112
attention
refers to the processes that allow people to control input from the environment and regulate behaviour
- 3 networks of attention
113
auditory threshold
refers to the quietest sound that a person can hear.
114
cones
we detect wavelength - and therefore colour - with specialized neurons called cones that are in the retina of the eye
- some cones are particularly sensitive to short-wavelength light (blues and violets) others are sensitive to medium-wavelength light (greens and yellows) others are sensitive to long-wavelength light (reds and orange)
115
differentation
distinguishing and mastering individual skills
116
dynamic systems theory
a theory that views development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet the demands of specific tasks
- ex: walking includes maintaining balance, moving limbs , perceiving the environment and having a reason to move
117
fine-motor skills
associated with grasping, holding and manipulating objects
| ex; baby start by having o have someone hold the bottle for them, eventually able to do it themselves
118
habituation
when a novel stimulus is presented, babies pay much attention but they pay less attention as it becomes more familiar
119
integration
linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole
120
interposition
nearby objects obscure more distant objects
| - can tell that the glass is closer then the bottle
121
intercessory redundancy theory
the infants perceptual system is particularly attuned to amodal information that is presented to multiple sensory modes
122
kinetic cues
motion is used to estimate depth
123
linear perspective
Parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance
- we use the space between the lines as a cue to the distance and decide that the train in the photo os far away
124
locomotion
to move about the world
| - ex; newborns are immobile, but infants soon learn to crawl walk and stand
125
motion parallax
refers to the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than those at a distance
126
motor skills
coordinated movements of the muscle and limbs
127
pictorial cues
by seven months infants use several cues for depth that depend on the arrangement of objects in the environment
- called pictorial cues because they are the same cues that artists use to convey depth in drawings
128
relative size
nearby objects look substantially larger than objects seen in the distance
129
retinal disparity
is based on the fact that the left and right eyes often see slightly different versions of the same sense
130
sensory and perceptual processes
are the means by which people receive, select, modify and organize stimulation from the world
131
size constancy
mastered by infants early on
- the realization that an object's actual size remains the same despite the changes in the size of its retinal image
- ex; mother moves away from baby, head gets smaller
132
texture gradient
the texture of objects change from coarse but distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects
133
toddler
young children who have just learned to walk
| - a typical 11 month old can stand alone and walk with assistance, some take their first steps as late as 17-18 months
134
visual acuity
is defined as the smallest pattern that can be distinguished dependably
135
visual cliff
is a glass-covered platform; on one side, a pattern appears directly under the glass, but on the other, it appears several feet below the glass
- experiment used to test at what age infants can perceive depth (by the time they are old enough to crawl
136
visual expansion
refers to the fact that as an object moves closer it fills an even greater proportion of the retina
- the reason why we flinch when someone unexpectedly tosses a pop can toward us
137
accommodation
according to Piaget, the modification of existing schemas based on new experience
138
animism
a phenomenon common in pre-school children in which they attribute life and life like properties to inanimate objects
139
assimilation
according to Piaget, the incorporation of new information into existing schemas
140
automatic process
cognitive activities that require virtually no effort
141
central executive
the component of the information-processing system, analogous to a computer's operating system, that coordinates the activities of the system
142
centration
narrow focused thinking characteristics of Piaget's preoperational stage
143
concrete operational stage
the third of Piaget's stages, from 7 to 11 years of age, in which children first use mental operations to solve problems and to reason
144
constructivism
the view associated with Piaget, that children are active participants in their own development who systematically construct ever more sophisticated understandings of their world
145
core-knowledge theories
the view that infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world that is elaborated upon based on children's experiences
146
deductive reasoning
drawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of formal operational thought
147
egocentrism
difficulty in seeing the world from other's point of view; typical of children in Piaget's pre-operational stage
148
equilibration
according to Piaget, the process by which children reorganize their schemas and, in the process, move to the next developmental stage
149
essentialism
the belief, common among young children, that all living things have an underlying essence that can't be seen but that gives a living thing its identity
150
executive functioning
A mechanism of growth that includes inhibitory processes, planning, and cognitive flexibility
151
folk psychology
our formal beliefs about other people and their behaviour
152
formal operational stage
the fourth of Piaget's stages, from roughly age 11 into adulthood, in which children and adolescents can apply mental operations to abstract entitles, allowing them to think hypothetically and reason deductively
153
guided participation
according to Vygotsky, structured interactions between a child and another more knowledgeable person; these are thought to promote cognitive growth
154
information-processing theory
a view that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software
155
inner speech
Vygotsky's term for thought
156
intersubjectivity
according to Vygotsky, mutual, shared understanding among people who are participating in an activity together
157
long-term memory
a permanent store-house that has unlimited capacity for memories
158
mental operations
cognitive actions that can be preformed on objects or ideas
159
object permanence
the understanding acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself
160
pre-operational stage
the second of Piaget's stages, from two to seven years of age, in which children first use symbols to represent objects and events
161
private speech
ongoing commentary that children use that is not intended for others but rather to help children regulate their own behaviour
162
scaffolding
a teaching style in which adults adjust the amount of assistance that they offer based on the learner's needs
163
schema, schemata
in Piaget's theory, active, continually changing, and developing mental structures that drive cognitive development
164
sensorimotor stage
the first of Piaget's fours stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately two years of age, in which infants progress from responding reflexively to using symbols
165
sensory memory
a type of memory in which information is held in raw, unanalyzed form very briefly (no longer than a few seconds)
166
sociocultural perspective
the view that children's cognitive development is not only brought about by social interaction, but it is also inseparable from the sociocultural contexts in which they live
167
teleological explanation
as applied to children's naive theories of living things, the belief that living things and parts of living things exist for a purpose.
168
theory of mind
an intuitive understanding of the connections between thoughts beliefs, intentions and behaviour; develops rapidly in the preschool years
169
working memory
a type of memory in which a small number of items can be briefly stored
170
zone of proximal development
the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone
