Midterm Review Flashcards

Question

What are the variables used in Quantitative Research?

Answer 1

Main types used in quant. research as basis of writing hypotheses & questions for correlational, experimental & quasi-exp studies: Dependent (Y) Independent (X) Think back to high school math if X then Y Y=mX + b Neither dependent or independent Just a relationship exists

Answer 2

“The title keys the reader to the main variables of the study” “An abstract keys the reader to the main components of the study”. “An abstract is a short comprehensive synopsis or summary of a study at the beginning of an article. An abstract quickly focuses the reader on the main points of a study. A well-presented abstract is accurate, self-contained, concise, specific, non-evaluative, coherent, and readable.” Does the abstract tell you the main components/phenomena of the study? What are the key variables/phenomena? Does the abstract focus you to the main findings of the study? What are the main findings?

Answer 3

1. Has the problem been substantiated – how well? 2. Has the significance of the problem been identified? 3. Does the purpose/aim match/respond to the problem statement? 4. Does the question imply the possibility of empirical testing? Can it be answered?

Answer 4

ONTOLOGY The science or study of “being.” Questions: What can be said to exist? Into what categories can existing things be sorted? EPISTEMOLOGY Epistemology addresses the issue of “truth.” Questions: What is knowledge? How do we know what we know? What is the scope of knowledge? METHODOLOGY Methodology refers to discipline-specific principles, rules, and procedures that guide the research process. Questions: How can we answer our research question? What approache(s) are most relevant/suitable?

Answer 5

1. Post-Positivism 2. Critical Social 3. Constuctivist

Answer 6

POST-POSITIVISM - a material world exisits, not all things can be understood, sensed or placed into a cause and effect relationship. The senses provide us with imperfect understanding of the external material world. CRITICAL THEORY- reality is constructed by those with the most power at particular points in history, reality is palstic at all times imperfectly understood, overtime relaity is shaped by numerous political/social/economical & cultural forces. CONTRUCTIVE- reality in constructed by individual perception, not absolute truth or validity, truth is realitive and subjective and based on perception or some particular frame of reference.

Answer 7

POST-POSITIVISM- researchers are naturally biased, objectivity is the ultimate goal, encourages traingulation & replication findings, encourages intense scrutiny of research and rejectin of poorly conducted research. CRITICAL THEORY- research is a transaction b/w the researcher and participant, perceptions naturally influence knowledge generation/creation, contextual awareness & its relationship to the participants-understanding of reality is the focus of the research, objectivity as outlined by past positivist is not a desired goal. CONSTUCTIVE- research is a transaction b/w researcher & participant, perceptions naturally influence knowledge generalization/creation, emphasizes the meaning ascribed to human experience, context is considered but not emphasized, objectivity as outlined by the post-positivist is not a desired goal.

Answer 8

POST-POSITIVISM-research is a series of lodgical steps, includes experimental & non-experimental approaches, research questions/hypotheses are proposed and subject to testing. CRITICAL THEORY- inquiry requires dialogue b/w the investigator and researcher participant, dialogue is transformative and brings to the forefront the historical context behind experiences of suffering, conflict and collective struggles, dialogue increases participates awareness of actions required to incite change. CONSTRUCTIVE-inquiry requires dialogue b/w the researcher and participant, focus on intrepretation of written texts, art pictures and videos, findings bring to the forefront the various ways in which people construct meaning and understanding.

Answer 9

POST-POSITIVISM - explanation, predication, control CRITICAL THEORY- critique, change, reconstruction of what we know to be true, emanicpation CONSTRUCTIVE- understanding, reconstructive of what we know to be true.

Answer 10

1. INDUCTIVE REASONING: Start with details of experience and move to a general picture; from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. More open-ended and exploratory, especially during the early stages of research. Example: Delirium is a newer concept that has been gaining a new definition in practice or notice cloudy catheter bags in patients with infections, helps you think they are connected. 2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING: Works from the more general information to the more specific. Sometimes this is called the “top-down” approach because the researcher starts at the top with a very broad spectrum of information and they work their way down to a specific conclusion. More narrow and is generally used to test or confirm hypotheses. Example: All dogs are mammals, all mammals have kidneys, therefore all dogs have kidneys.

Answer 11

* An image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea (e.g., pain). * The major components (building blocks) of theory and convey the abstract ideas within a theory. Helpful beacause.... - Categorize & organize environmental stimuli - Classify our experiences in meaningful way - Help us to understand our world

Answer 12

A set of interrelated concepts that serve the purpose of explaining or predicting phenomena. A blueprint or a written or diagrammatic depiction of both the concepts that compose a theory and how they are related

Answer 13

Organize concepts into meaningful relationships to explain an event/ situation. Conceptual/theoretical framework. Test the relationships btw concepts with operationalized variables that measure your concepts (deductive).

Answer 14

Explore concept/phenomena’. Develop theory about the relationships btw variables/ phenomena (inductive). May have theoretical perspectives guiding you but not in the sense of a linear/causal framework that you are testing (ex. Feminist theory). Used to focus the research inquiry…

Answer 15

-A structure of concepts, theories, or both that is used to construct a map for a study. Presents a theory that explains why the phenomenon being studied exists. Constructed from a review of the literature or is developed as part of a qualitative research project

Answer 16

Also defined as a structure of concepts, theories, or both that is used to construct a map for the study. Based on a philosophical or theorized belief or understanding of why the phenomenon under study exists.

Answer 17

- Clarifies context - identifies & states underlying assumptions of a study - Speifies the relationship among and b/w concepts - A conceptual of theoretical model is a visual symbolic represention of the concepts in a framewrk

Answer 18

Is the framework... - clearly identified? - consistent with a nursing perspective? - appropriate for the topic? - Are the concepts and variables clearly and appropriately defined? - Did the study present sufficient literature to support the selected concepts and hypotheses? - Is there a logical, consistent link between the framework, the concepts being studied, and the methods of measurement?

Answer 19

A property, quality or characteristic of a person, thing, or situation that can change or vary

Answer 20

Independent (X) and Dependent (Y) Demographic variables: contain background info about sample like age, gender Extraneous variables: rival hypotheses or may be alternate reasons for findings because they cloud/obscure the relationship between the independent & dependent variables * DECIDED BY RESEARCHER * VARIABLES ON THEIR OWN ARE NOT INHERENTLY DEFINED AS INDEPENDENT, DEPENDENT, DEMOGRAPHIC OR EXOGENOUS

Answer 21

Conceptually: - Abstract - Theoretical definition - Mental image/ idea about something - Provide the general meaning Operationally: - Concrete - Defines exactly how concept/ construct will be measured

Answer 22

“An objective, thorough summary and critical analysis of the relevant available research and non-research literature on the topic being studied”. Gathers information from many sources on what is “known”/“not known” about a subject (“current state of knowledge”). - Can be a written report, section of a research article or part of a book. May or may not be explicitly called “lit review”.

Answer 23

Lays the foundation for a study/highlights its significance to nursing. Helps with identifying, developing and refining research problem/questions Identifies key sources that are important for understanding a particular phenomenon or issue.

Answer 24

Increase our knowledge/ understanding of a particular topic to: 1. Support practice. 2. Make decisions related to policy, education (develop and revise nursing curricula) etc. 3. Develop BPGs, protocols, etc. 4. Identify gaps in knowledge/need for new research/need for - replication of a study with a different population (background for research proposals). 5. Identify potential theoretical/conceptual frameworks and develop hypotheses to be tested. 6. Identify potential designs & data collection methods. 7. Interpretation of study findings/implications/recommendations

Answer 25

Shaped by: The depth and breadth required The time frame for conducting the review The types of sources available

Answer 26

Depth: the amount & quality of the sources that are examined Breadth: the number of different topics/sub-topics examined

Answer 27

How long researchers have to conduct the review. Time period covered in the review. Influenced by the problem studied, sources available, and the goals of the researcher (not set).

Answer 28

Theoretical vs. empirical literature Primary studies Secondary studies Synthesized knowledge & Systematic reviews Clinical practice guidelines Patient decision aides Popular / “Grey” literature (e.g. newspapers, personal websites, blogs, etc.) Modes of communicating: printed and electronic

Answer 29

1. Traditional Narrative Reviews 2. Meta-analysis 3. Qualitative Metasynthesis

Answer 30

Ask a researchable question. Select primary research studies that have tried to answer the question(s) -- Problem & purpose statements, design, sample etc. Puts them all together – synthesize them. Some analyze results in a meta-analyses. Come up with a bottom line statement that answers the question. Can be stronger level of support on which to base clinical practice decisions than on one study alone

Answer 31

* Identify a researchable problem * Identify terms related to concepts/phenomena/variables * Identify appropriate electronic database i.e. Joanna Briggs, * DARE (database of abstracts of reviews of effects), Cochrane, CINAHL, Medline… * Enter the terms into the database and conduct the search * Initial - review the retrieved resources: title, abstract, journal… * Retrieve key papers (electronic full text, print) - Critically read each source - Synthesize review if individual papers - Identify consistencies & gaps/ inconsistencie

Answer 32

Relevant literature (both seminal + current) Comprehensive Critique of reviewed articles Adequate information concerning reviewed resources for reader Summarize, identify gaps, consistencies and inconsistencies Make a case for policy or practice change…

Answer 33

1. Is the coverage of the literature thorough? 2. Does it include all or most of the major studies that have been conducted on the topic of interest? Are recent research reports cited? 3. Does the review rely on appropriate materials? (use of primary sources or secondary?) 4. Is the review organized and the development of ideas is clear? If the review is part of a new research study, does the review support the need for the new study? If the review is designed to guide clinical practice , does the review of the evidence support the need for practice change?

Answer 34

SYNTHESIS OF KNOWLEDGE: involves searching the lit then putting it together to formulate an overall understanding DISSEMATION OF KNOWLEDGE: Involves identifying the audience and tailoring the message to enhance understanding EXCHANGE OF KNOWLEDGE: Interaction with people who will use the knowledge for their mutual understanding & benefit - People – Patients, Families, Communities - Nurses and other clinicians - Policy makers - Researchers

Answer 35

* Plan (directions/ blueprint) * Structure of the investigation/study * Strategy Purpose of research design is to “aid in the solution of research problems and to maintain control”. - In other words, to give an answer to research question and to control variance/differences which may confuse the results

Answer 36

Consistent with the research problem and purpose, i.e., questions/ hypotheses Based on the review of the literature and conceptual/ theoretical framework to establish what is known about a topic and relationship between concepts If little is known (i.e., limited empirical & theoretical evidence), might decide to do preliminary descriptive or exploratory study

Answer 37

- Time and timing - Availability of participants - Facility and availability of equipment/facilities - Scope and breadth of the study - Funding/$ - Researcher experience - Ethics

Answer 38

What is control? Holding the conditions of the study constant (text) In other words, putting rules/ regulations/ protocols/ controls in place. Why do we need it? In order to make statements about causality, i.e., X →Y and not some extraneous variable →Y Consumers can trust the findings The findings are an accurate/ true reflection of reality X →Y, not an extraneous variable →Y When is it needed? when examining causal relationships between variables

Answer 39

How do we get control? - Homogeneous sample (keeping sample relatively same on certain criteria that may influence Y; sampling criteria/ eligibility criteria) - Consistent data collection procedures - Randomization, i.e., random assignment - Manipulation of independent variable in exp/quasi exp studies - Including a control/ comparative group (usual care group or no intervention/ untreated group) What limits our ability to control? - Ethics/practical considerations

Answer 40

Non-Experimental Level I Descriptive/exploratory studies Only describe a phenomenon (e.g. surveys on voting tendency) Level II Interrelational studies Considered “higher” because do more than describe Examine the relationships among variables (e.g. surveys on voting tendency that also aim to make a correlational statement about level of education, type of education, profession, SES, income, region etc) Experimental Level III quasi-experimental / experimental Highest level of design = experimental. Most control and therefore ability to make causal statements X →Y

Answer 41

Used to identify and explore events, people or situations as they occur naturally Used to test relationships or difference among variables (NOT identify/test direct causality) No independent variable manipulation

Answer 42

Descriptive/exploratory studies Purpose = get more info about a phenomenon/ variable(s) Includes surveys, case studies, and comparative studies Correlational studies Purpose = to examine the relationships btw 2 or more variables Can be further differentiated by a Cohort Purpose = show a relationship btw an outcome (dep variable) and an event (ind. variable) using cohorts/ groups That has occurred or is occurring in the natural course of events Used when it would be unethical to use experimental study (eg. smoking, bedrest)

Answer 43

Cross-sectional: data collected at 1 point in time (“snapshot”) Longitudinal: data collected at > 1 point in time Prospective: in the future Retrospective/ ex-post facto: in the past

Answer 44

1. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS: For testing cause and effect relationships or the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variables 2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL:Full experimental control not possible and/or not feasible /or unethical Less control than true experiment typically from lack of randomization to a control group /or lack of control group extraneous variables could explain/ account for the results * Both manipulate the independant variable and apply interventions

Answer 45

* Manipulation of the independent variable * Randomization or random assignment to groups * Control or maintaining constants (intervention, sample and study groups)

Answer 46

Advantages: Gold standard, Its main characteristic Its main characteristic (control from randomization) high internal validity, ie, crucial for establishing cause & effect. Disadvantage: Ethics & feasibility of randomization, Difficult to implement in field setting

Answer 47

1. Internal validity 2. External validity 3. Contruct validity 4. Statistical Conclusion

Answer 48

X →Y, not an extraneous variable →Y Can something else explain the results (whether significant or non-significant)? 6 Threats to internal validity: 1. History 2. Maturation 3. Testing 4. Instrumentation 5. Mortality 6. Selection Bias

Answer 49

Another event may have an effect on the dependent variable. May occur inside or outside the experimental setting. The event is external to the person. concurrent life events media, health initiatives… Happen over the duration of the investigation

Answer 50

“Refers to the developmental, biological, or psychological processes that operate within an individual as a function of time” and are external to the events of the investigation/unrelated to the investigation. It is internal to the person: * changes that would occur naturally over time without the study intervention - Get tired, bored, hungry, lose - Losing Interest, change in health * consider the time interval

Answer 51

Experience of pre-test may affect post-test scores even without an intervention

Answer 52

* Something about the way in which data were collected may account for changes in outcomes/dependent variables rather than the independent variable * Measurement error * Inconsistent measurement practices * Observation inconsistency

Answer 53

* Loss of study participants from the first data collection point (pretest) to next future data collection point (post test) * Lost/dead to the researcher as no longer in the study

Answer 54

* Way in which sample was selected results in experimental & control group differ on a characteristic/variable that influences findings * Way in which sample was assigned to groups. * Lack of random assignment to groups. * Self-selection to groups.

Answer 55

``` Refers to the applicability of findings The extent to which findings of the study are generalizable to other - Populations - Settings - Conditions ``` ``` Consider what factors may limit or affect generalizability. 3 Threats to external validity: 1. Selection effects 2. Reactive effects 3. Measurement effects ```

Answer 56

Focus on the population to whom the findings are generalizable Consider * How sample obtained * Who ended up in the study - Who refused to participate - Who dropped out - Did a certain characteristic or trait predispose entry into the study or into a research group

Answer 57

Focus on participants’ reaction to being studied & if findings only generalizable to study conditions Consider - Did subjects want to please the Researchers? - Was there something in the study conditions that the subjects reacted to? (novelty, Hawthorne effect)

Answer 58

Effect of pretest on findings on outcomes - Consider how data collection at baseline (pretest) may influence responses later in the study Study results may not be generalizable to those who had only the intervention but not the pre-test