Midterm Review Questions (Exams) Flashcards by Hannah Alley

The purpose of the three-stage puzzlebox experiment with children, chimpanzees, and capuchin monkeys by Deen, Kendal, Schapiro, Thierry, and Laland (2012) was to
a- test the difference in collaboration skills between humans, chimpanzees, and capuchin monkeys while solving the problem
b-test the difference in intelligence between humans, chimpanzees. and capuchin monkeys while solving the problem
c-compare the amount of time and effort that humans and monkeys tend to put in to reach their goal
d-examine the evolutionary difference in curiosity between humans, chimpanzees. and capuchin monkeys

test the difference in collaboration skills between humans, chimpanzees, and capuchin monkeys while solving a problem.

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Similar to the modern science, Aristotle believed _____________________.
that the truth existing in abstractions.
in universals.
that the absolute knowledge is accessible through senses only.
in making inquiries through observations

in making inquiries through observations

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What is the first step in learning, before you can actually comprehend something, according to Bloom’s model?

knowing

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Finish the sentence: Scientific approach to knowledge gathering __________.
came together, gradually, and, mainly, due to the following unique human traits: problem solving and curiosity.
came together, gradually, and as a result of such human traits as tendency for social transmission of knowledge and symbolism.
were invented during the Renaissance.
was the invention of the ancient Egyptians

came together, gradually, and as a result of such human traits as tendency for social transmission of knowledge and symbolism.

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I used the quote in chapter 1 by an archaeologist, Steven Mithen, who wrote this: “Each generation of chimpanzees appears to begin from scratch on the same old problems as their parents, grandparents and all great-grandparents before them had to learn to solve” (p. 5). What was the point of this quote? (Please choose the most accurate answer)

It was to highlight that humans engage in cultural transmission unlike any other species.

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What do Greek philosophy and science have always in common?
observations are at the core of both.
both use scientific methods of knowledge gathering
both seek knowledge for practical reasons.
both apply critical thinking

both apply critical thinking

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Choose the best answer: Given the definition of critical thinking, what aspect of it is the most important to science?
Logic
arguing for the sake of arguing
evaluation of claim based on evidence
remembering all the facts of the matter

evaluation of claim based on evidence

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_______________was the precursor of psychology.
empiricism
science
democracy
philosophy

philosophy

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Risking life in the name of science by conducting controversial research can be an example of what by-product of cultural transmission?
symbolism
an attempt to gain prestige
courage
problem solving

an attempt to gain prestige

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What does some historical and empirical evidence suggest about the association between human population and innovation?
There is no significant association
Smaller communities tend to collaborate better which leads to more innovation
People in small groups tend to develop more innovative technologies.
Greater number of people is associated with more innovation.

Greater number of people is associated with more innovation.

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The first known human technology is _______________?

Oldowan stone tools

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The contribution of early Greek philosophers to science was _________________________.
that for the first time people began questioning the natural order of things for the sake of knowledge rather than for some practical reasons.
that for the first time in human history, people were able to manipulate nature to improve their living conditions.
their unique ability to solve problems.
that early philosophers invented the modern scientific methods of knowledge gathering.

That for the first time people began questioning the natural order of things for the sake of knowledge rather than for some practical reasons.

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What human trait sets us apart from the apes and motivates us to pass on knowledge from generation to generation?
Greed
Aggression
Fear
Prosociality

Prosociality

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Choose ALL that apply: Transition to agriculture was significant because _________.
it led to the human population growth.
it led to technological innovations.
it is considered to be the birth of modern science.
it led to the increase in knowledge.

a. it led to technological innovations
b. it led to an increase in knowledge
c. it led to the human population growth

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According to Henrich and Gil-White (2001)’s theory of prestige, individuals with skills / celebrities are ______ and the rest / fans are _______.
models, copiers
scientists, users of science
creators, copiers
copiers, models

Models
Copiers

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Unlike non-humans, we accumulate knowledge successfully through __________.
Problem Solving
Communication
Cultural Transmission
Learning

Cultural transmission

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Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that _______.

One can know through observations

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Science can be defined as ________.
a-a process of knowledge gathering through experimentation
b-a process of obtaining knowledge through systematic observations and critical thinking
c-information obtained through scientific discovery
d-experimentation and manipulation of variables

A process of obtaining knowledge through systematic observations and critical thinking

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What is one of the rudimentary differences between the way humans and chimpanzees accumulate knowledge?
humans use problem solving skills and chimpanzees don’t.
humans will go to great lengths to pass on new knowledge to the next generation.
humans cooperate with others while chimpanzees work alone.
humans use communication to transmit information and chimpanzees lack the skills to communicate.

Humans will go to great lengths to pass on new knowledge to the next generation

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According to Henrich and Gil-White (2001), individuals with skills are ____ and the rest are ____.
models, copiers
scientists, users of science
creators, copiers
copiers, models

Models
Copiers

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Greater number of people is associated with more innovation

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What comes right before you can appropriately evaluate any presented information, according to Bloom’s model of learning?

Synthesis

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What is one crucial difference between the scientific methods and Plato’s method of inquiry?
Unlike science, Plato constantly questioned things around him.
Plato relied on reasoning.
Plato did not believe in reliability (true reality) of knowledge obtained through observations.
science is about understanding the natural world and Plato attempted to understand the supernatural world.

Plato did not believe in reliability (true reality) of knowledge obtained through observations.

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Expressing one’s thoughts through art is an example of __________________.
science
high IQ
using intellect
using symbolism

Using Symbolism

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Choose ALL that apply: Symbolism is closely associated with___________________________. transition to agriculture art language abstract thinking

Language Art Abstract Thinking

A prehistoric event that had a significant effect on the human population growth is ______________________.

transition to agriculture

Choose ALL that apply: Plato categorized world into ______ and _______. a-sensible b-physical c-perceivable d-intelligible

Sensible Intelligible

Choose ALL that applies: Critical thinking entails _____________________________ reflective thinking abstaining from drawing any conclusions despite the evidence. drawing most reasonable conclusion, when given the evidence. evaluation of evidence

a. reflective thinking b. drawing most reasonable conclusion, when given the evidence. c. evaluation of evidence

The General Aggression Model offers an explanation to why some people develop aggressive tendencies. This model can also generate many hypotheses. Therefore, this model is ____________________________ Valid Unreliable Falsifiable Non-Parsiminious

falsifiable

One crucial difference between Hume's and Descartes' method of knowledge gathering is ___________ That Descartes used bottom-up process and Hume believed in the top-down approach. That unlike Descartes, who only relied on reasoning, Hume used observations. Descartes was a philosopher and Hume was a scientist Descartes used logic and Hume did not believe in rational thinking.

that unlike Descartes, who only relied on reasoning, Hume used observations.

My friend likes to give me parenting advice. She believes that because her daughters are very smart and well-behaved she knows how to parent. My friend relies on what type of knowledge gathering? Systematic Observations Experimentation Unsystematic Observations Authority

unsystematic observations

Researchers Anderson and Dill used the General Aggression Model to test four hypotheses about the role of violent media in influencing people's behavior. This is an example of _______________________ Induction Confirmation Bias Disconfirmation Deduction

Deduction

Unsystematic observations is an example of ____________________. a form of modern research methods an unscientific form of inquiry a scientific form of inquiry a literature gathering

an unscientific form of inquiry

Choose one research area that meets the falsifiability standard. Are ghosts real? the question of whether the subconscious personality constructs, the id, the ego and the super-ego are in constant battles with one another. the question of whether "opposites attract" (people of different personalities tend to be attracted to each other). my astrology prediction for this week

The question of whether "opposites attract" (people of different personalities tend to be attracted to each other).

Learning from others’ personal experiences is an example of what form of inquiry?

Unsystematic observations

The birth of modern science dates back to _____________________.

The Renaissance

"I've always studied by trying to understand the material, rather than by memorizing it. And this has always led to good grades. Therefore, I can use the same strategy in the Research Methods lab course and receive a good grade." This is an example of _______________________ approach to reasoning. Top-Down Approach Learning from authority Wishful Thinking Bottom-Up Approach

Top-Down Approach

In the experiment by Hill and colleagues (1990), the subjects learned to associate subtle facial features (e.g., the location of the nostrils) with personality types. The association was fake. What did the study reveal?

The subjects unconsciously learned the association and used it to judge other people's faces.

"I tried a different approach to study for the final exam in my previous science class. I joined a study group where we discussed the topics in the group and helped each other understand the material. As the result of that, I received an A on the exam. If I use this strategy in all of my classes, I finish all my courses with As." This is an example of _________________________ approach.

Bottom-Up Approach

Why is Galileo, and not his other predecessors, often called the father of modern science? Galileo was the first to ever propose the heliocentric system theory. He relied on systematic observations to prove the heliocentric theory. He was the first to question the authority. Galileo was the first to make unsystematic observations.

He relied on systematic observations to prove the heliocentric theory.

Choose ALL that apply: Why do some scholars believe that the humanist movement gave rise to science? people were turning to the methods that would allow them to find objective ways of learning. It gave rise to more humane treatment of all people. It started the tradition of exploring the natural world. To gain popularity and power, the church invested a lot of money into the humanist movement which then helped the scientific movement.

a. People were turning to the methods that would allow them to find objective ways of learning. b. It started the tradition of exploring the natural world.

Another name for empiricism is ______. experimentation asking the right questions systematic observations unsystematic observations

Systematic Observations

Deduction is ______. serching for evidence. reasoning from general to specific. logical inquiry reasoning from specific to general.

reasoning from general to specific

The strength of a disconfirmation strategy ______. is that it can be easily implemented. is that it sets more rigorous standards for finding support for a theory. it makes a theory irrefutable. it sets lower standards for finding support for a theory

is that it sets more rigorous standards for finding support for a theory

Even Aristotle was wrong about many things. What does this fact prove? a- that science is unreliable b-that relying on authority does not guarantee that you will get the right answer c-that systematic observations are not true science d-that only those who conduct experiments can be trustworthy

That relying on authority does not guarantee you will get the right answer

"I will always get an A when I study by trying to understand, rather than memorizing things. Thus, I will get an A in this class if I use the same method." This is an example of _______ approach. learning from authority top-down approach bottom-up approach wishful thinking

Top-Down Approach

My friend likes to give me parenting advice. She believes that because her daughters are very smart and well-behaved she knows how to parent. My friend relies on what type of knowledge gathering?

unsystematic observations

Is Egyptology a scientific discipline? Choose the BEST answer: No, because Egyptologists study events of prehistoric time, the two important criteria of science cannot be met: falsifiability and empiricism. Yes, it uses scientific methods. For example, when there is no physical evidence to observe, Egyptologists will physically recreate a phenomenon of interest (e.g., an Egyptian pyramid) to observe and make inferences. Yes, it uses scientific methods. For example, when there is no physical evidence to observe, Egyptologists will apply rational thinking to connect events of the past. No, because Egyptologists study events of prehistoric time, two important criteria of science cannot be met: empiricism and testability.

Yes, it uses scientific methods. For example, when there this no physical evidence to observe, Egyptologists will physically recreate a phenomenon of interest to observe and make inferences.

Induction is _____ logical inquiry reasoning from specific to general searching for evidence reasoning from general to specific

Reasoning from specific to general

Relying on reasoning is scientific as long as reasoning is rational. True or False

False

Falsifiability stands for ___________________. examining false assumptions testing a theory through disconfirmation. applying false assumptions. testing a theory through confirmation.

Testing a theory through disconfirmation

It seems logical to assume that if you give too much attention to your child, you might spoil him--make him too needy. This is an example of _____________________________________. being influenced by authority. relying on unsystematic observations. knowing by way of reasoning. a scientific evidence gathering

Knowing by way of reasoning

Choose ALL that apply: What can undermine the scientific status of a theory? a- inability to measure the constructs of the theory b-being falsifiable c-disconfirmation approach d-being too vague

a. Inability to measure the constructs of a theory. b. Being too vague

Galileo is known as the father of modern science _________________

Because he used systematic observations to test his ideas

Please finish the sentence: Contrary to early Greek philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, science relies on ________________________________________________.

Direct and indirect observations using our senses

Descartes' way of knowledge gathering is not scientific because_____________.

It was based only on reasoning

_________was an intellectual movement during the Renaissance, that focused on ___. a-humanism; compassion b-modernism; the natural world c-modernism; rationalism d-humanism; the natural world

Humanism The Natural World

Trying to find a needle in a haystack is the analogy that fits what type of knowledge gathering? a-reasoning b-authority c-unsystematic observations d-systematic observations

unsystematic observations

When two events co-occur in close proximity, you should automatically view them as causally related. True or False

False

Determinism is ___________________

the idea that every event has its cause.

A researcher studies how personality (extraversion) affects quality of romantic relationships. To measure couples' personalities, he observes them at a restaurant and rate their behavior on some scale, ranging from 1 (lowest level of extraversion) to 7 (highest level of extraversion). The measurement scale of the variable 'extraversion' is_____________________________. interval nominal ratio ordinal

Ordinal

A researcher is interested in examining the link between audience preferences and different types of TV shows. Types of TV shows is measured on what type of measuring scale? a-nominal b-ratio c-ordinal d-interval

Nominal

A developmental psychologist studies age and cognition. Specifically, the age of each participant is recorded and then, correlated with his/her cognitive skills. Age is measured on what type of measuring scale? a-ratio b-nominal c-interval d-ordinal

Ratio

You study the effect of video games on players' behavior. However, you also know that more men than women play video games; and you also know that, on average, men tend to be more aggressive than women. Gender in this case is____________________. a-a construct. b-a confounding variable c-a dependent variable d-an independent variable

A Confounding Variable

A researcher hypothesizes that competitiveness of the video games predicts the degree of their violent content. The criterion in this hypothesis is___________________ and the predictor is _________________. competitiveness; the person who plays the video game the person who plays the video games; competitiveness violence; competitiveness competitivenss; violence

Violence Competitiveness

A researcher hypothesizes that people who seek notoriety will show more preference for reality TV shows. The criterion in this hypothesis is ___________ and the predictor is ____________. a-preference for reality shows; people who seek notoriety b-audience IQ; cognitive demand of reality shows c-reality TV audience's preferences; cognitive demand of reality shows d-people who seek notoriety; preference for reality shows

Preference for reality shows People who seek notoriety

Choose ALL THAT APPLY. The purpose of science is _______________________ a- to explain b- to judge c- to predict d-to describe

a. to explain b. to describe c. to predict

Identify the characteristics of a good research question. Choose ALL that apply. groundbreaking grounded in previous research clearly articulated carries important implication

a. grounded in previous research b. clearly articulated c. carries important implication

There are many ways to define 'data'. Please choose the most appropriate definition. people with observations All observations that must be measured and used in analyses. measured variables that come from experimental studies constructs.

all observations that must be measured and used in analyses.

You decided to measure stereotypes in the media by coding it as present or absent from each piece of media. The scale of measurement you chose is _________________________ Ordinal Nominal Ratio Interval

Nominal

Choose the best answer. Internal validity refers to ______. ability to generalize results to the population of interest how correlated two variables are describing the phenomenon. understanding what causes a phenomenon.

understanding what causes a phenomenon

Choose All that Apply: The quote by Albert Einstein, "If I had an hour to solve a problem and my life depended on the solution, I would spend the first 55 minutes determining the proper question to ask, for once I know the proper question, I could solve the problem in less than 5 minutes." is intended to make what point? a-that a research question sets the tone and gives the purpose for the entire study. b-that a research question and a hypothesis are essentially the same thing. c-that formulating a hypothesis must be the starting point of any research. d-that establishing/refining a research question is the first and very important step in the research process

a. that a research question sets the tone and gives the purpose for the entire study b. that establishing/refining a research question is the first and very important step in the research process

Choose the best answer. A variable is _______. an unexplained phenomenon. a unit of analysis. a defined construct a measured phenomenon with a numerical value.

a measured phenomenon with a numerical value

Choose all that apply. The more specific a theory is _____. the more chances for it to be disconfirmed. the less scientific it is. the more chances for it to be confirmed. the more opportunities for testing it.

a. The more chances for it to be confirmed b. The more opportunities for testing it c. The more chances for it to be disconfirmed

Freud theorized that a person who experienced some traumatic event would repress its memory to cope with psychological stress. Choose a confirmation strategy to prove this.

An individual has some trauma (A). However, when asked about it, he/she has no memory of it (B). If A, then B.

Population of interest is _____ and sample is _____. all people; only participants of a study everyone who is interested in the study; a selection of people who is geographically close to the location of where the study takes place. about whom or what you will generalize; participants or entities collected for the study everyone who is interested in the study; randomly selected people

About whom or what you will generalize Participants or entities collected for the study

A researcher studies different types of personalities. Specifically, the researcher categorizes people into introverts and extroverts. Personality is most likely measured on what type of measuring scale? a-interval b-ratio c-ordinal d-nominal

Nominal

A researcher hypothesizes that gender stereotypes observed on TV are caused by the social cues that men and women are usually assigned to. The dependent variable in this hypothesis is ___ and the independent variable is ____. stereotypes; gender social roles; gender stereotypes gender stereotypes; social roles cannot be determined yet.

Gender stereotypes Social roles

External validity refers to___ ability to generalize results to the population of interest how correlated two variables are describing the phenomenon. understanding what causes a phenomenon.

Ability to generalize results to the population of interest

Choose all that apply. Conducting literature review is important for____. developing a research plan understanding the gaps in the literature knowing what to hypothesize being able to make sense of the results

a. Developing a research plan b. Understanding the gaps in literature c. Being able to make sense of the results d. Knowing what to hypothesize

Suppose a researcher wants to test a theory that a genuine smile reflects a permanent positive disposition. Choose a study that applies a disconfirmation strategy to test this theory. It is not possible to apply a disconfirmation strategy to test this theory. Researchers will test an association between Facebook profile photos of people displaying genuine smiles and the number of their Facebook friends. They predict that people who display genuine smiles in their profile pictures have more friends. The theory is not falsifiable. Researchers will test an association between Facebook profile photos of people displaying genuine smiles and the number of their Facebook friends. They predict that people who display genuine smiles in their profile pictures have less friends.

Researchers will test an association between Facebook profile photos of people displaying genuine smiles and the number of their Facebook friends. They predict that people who display genuine smiles in their profile pictures have less friends.

Research process is ______________ curvilinear cyclical linear a line with a positive slope.

Cyclical

The difference between a scientific hypothesis and a research question is __________________.

The former is a statement that makes a specific prediction, while the latter is a question about a phenomenon of interest.

You are conducting a study to test a hypothesis that book reading conversations between securely attached children and their caregivers will be more engaging than the book reading conversations between insecurely attached children and their caregivers. You transcribed 25 mother-child book reading conversations. Book reading engagement is operationally defined as the duration (in minutes) of the book reading conversations. Thus, the scale of measurement of the criterion variable is ____________ engagement nominal ordinal only child's words ratio

Ratio

Content analysis is what you will do for your research project. This means that your study will have a higher __________ and lower___________ than a typical experimental study. internal reliability; external validity external validity; internal validity external validity; internal reliability internal validity; external validity

External validity Internal validity

Where do you find supporting evidence when you formulate your hypothesis?

Articles from peer-reviewed academic journals.

How would you describe the relationship between a hypothesis and a research question? a- the research question leads to a set of specific predictions that are called hypotheses. b-they are the same thing. Some researchers call it a research question while others call it a hypothesis. c-A research question must be very specific while a hypothesis can be broad. However, they both are testing the same phenomenon. d-A researcher starts with a hypothesis, which is then developed into a set of different questions.

The research question leads to a set of specific predictions that are called hypotheses.

Choose ALL that apply: In most (if not all) psychology classes (including this one) the students are asked to think critically about what they read or hear. Why? a-Reliance on authority can be unreliable. b-Not all sources may be based on science c- reasoning can be flawed. d-psychology is an unreliable discipline.

Reliance on authority can be unreliable. Reasoning can be flawed. Not all sources may be based on science

What are Galileo, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler together known for?

Their work towards the discovery of the heliocentric (Sun-centered) system

In what way program evaluation is different from a scientific study? Choose one that is always true. a-Unlike a scientific study, program evaluation places judgement on the merits of a given program. b-Program evaluations apply content analysis which is not science. c-Program evaluations are not based on scientific methods. d-Program evaluations are not systematic.

Unlike a scientific study, program evaluation places judgement on the merits of a given program.

A unit of context_______________ A. adds another unit of analysis B. specifies the context in which a construct will be observed and measured C. provides a conceptual definition for the construct of interest D. provides an operational definition for the construct of interest

specifies the context in which a construct will be observed and measured

Suppose you are conducting a content analysis to address this research question: " Masculinity and femininity in the main leading characters of the action films released in movie theaters in 2024 are significantly lower than in the action films released in movie theaters in 2023. What is the best sampling strategy for this study? Systematic Sampling Cluster Sampling Simple Random Stratified Sampling

Simple Random

A construct is ________________________________. a variable an abstract idea a theory a unit of sample

an abstract idea

Suppose a study aims to test a hypothesis that Instagram profiles can be categorized into positive, negative and neutral based on the content of their posts. What is the unit of analysis in this study?

Profiles

A researcher collects a sample of TV commercials to code for their emotional tone. Let's assume that the researcher is studying 'emotionality'. And he wants to know whether TV commercials differ in terms of emotionality based on the type of product they advertise. The unit of analysis is __________________ and emotionality is _______________ a-product; unit of coding b-commercials; construct c-product; unit of analysis d-commercials; unit of context

Commercials Construct

When does a researcher have to have a coding scheme?

A researcher will use a coding scheme to transform constructs into measurable variables.

In what way program evaluation is similar to a scientific study? Choose one that is always true. a-Similar to a research study, program analyst will conclude with a judgement b-Similar to a research study, program evaluation process begins with setting goals (or questions) and a plan of how these goals will be accomplished (or questions to be addressed). c-Just like in science, a program analyst will conduct an experiment to measure effectiveness of a program. d-Program evaluation is considered a scientific study.

Similar to a research study, program evaluation process begins with setting goals (or questions) and a plan of how these goals will be accomplished (or questions to be addressed).

According to Wikipedia, sexual objectification of women is "when a woman is being viewed primarily as an object of male sexual desire, rather than as a whole person." This definition can be considered as _________________________________. an operational definition a conceptual definition a constructive definition a unit of coding

a conceptual definition

Conceptual definition is expressed in ____________________ terms and operational definition is the one that provides ___________________. concrete; theoretical support concrete; ideological support unit of concept; unit of operations theoretical; concrete ways to measure the construct

Theoretical Concrete ways to measure the construct

A researcher wants to test a hypothesis that women will be depicted to express more romantic ideals than men in romantic comedies. Romantic ideals is __. a construct unit of observation a variable operational definition of love

A Construct

You are conducting a study to determine if a relationship exists between personality and being a successful Reality TV character. To test your hypothesis, you select 25 most popular TV shows and rate the main characters’ behavior during groups’s altercations and group’s celebrations. In the study, the unit of context is group's altercations and group's celebrations each character personality type every reality TV show

Group’s altercations and group’s celebrations

Choose all examples of qualitative data video games rating of happiness (on a scale of 1 to 5) conversations between two friends TV commercials

a. TV commercials b. Video games c. Conversations between two friends

Generativity, mentioned in chapter 4, can be an example of a-an operational definition b-a conceptual definition c- a construct d-a contextual sampling

A Construct

Suppose you conducted a project with social media for this class. Now you would like to present your findings at a professional conference. Did you have to obtain an IRB approach to present your findings?

Yes

A researcher would like to study sexual objectification in movies. “Sexual objectification” is _______. a hypothesis a conceptual definition a unit of coding a construct

A Construct

You are working on a content analysis. Your hypothesis is that romantic comedy will depict women in more stereotypical ways than action-adventure movies. Stereotypical depiction of women is rated on a scale from 1 to 7, where 1 means least stereotypical and 7 very stereotypical. After you have coded 5 films (half of them were romantic comedy and the other half were action films), you entered the codes into a spreadsheet. What's the unit of analysis? The data looks like this: a-stereotypes b-women and men c-films d-genre

Films

Genres

How many probability sampling techniques are there? 10 4 6 2

Why would a researcher convert qualitative into quantitative data? to increase its external validity. to formulate hypotheses. to randomize the sample to use statistics for hypothesis testing.

To use statistics for hypothesis testing

Stories of commitment in a study of adult generativity is an example of _____________________.

An operational definition

"Connectedness in conversation between caregiver and child predicts child's more advanced social understanding more so than the content of their every day conversations." This is an example of _________________________________. a unit of analysis a hypothesis a construct analysis a theory

Hypothesis

Why would someone use qualitative data in research? Qualitative data are the easiest to study. to avoid quantitative data. When the nature of the phenomena under investigation is qualitative. to increase data reliability

When the nature of the phenomena under investigation is qualitative.

A researcher believes that connectedness in conversation between caregiver and child predicts child's more advanced social understanding more so than the content of their every day conversations." Each conversation is broken down into turns and coded as: Connected, Initiation, Failed, Conflict, or Unclear. These turns are _______________________. unit of sampling unit of coding constructs the unit of context

Unit of Coding

You are coding a TV show. Your research procedure requires that you pause every 10 minutes to record the presence or the absence of an aggressive act. The pausing is your __________________________. Unit of Observation Unit of Coding Unit of Analysis Operational Definition

Unit of Coding

When a unit of analysis is too complex, a researcher will have to break it down into smaller__________________.

Unit of Coding

A researcher would like to examine the depiction of stereotypes across different movies and characters. She hypothesizes that movies will depict fewer stereotypes; however, female characters will still be portrayed in more stereotypical ways than male characters. The unit of analysis is/are ____________________________. gender movies movies and characters characters

movies and characters

'Receiving or giving a sexual gaze' is most likely a (an) _______________________to 'sexual behavior' in a content analysis. a-conceptual definition b-construct c- operational definition d-theoretical perspective

Operational Definition

Why would someone use qualitative data in research?

When the nature of the phenomena under investigation is qualitative.

Researcher observes and counts the number of time the baby smiles. This is a ________________. ratio scale ordinal scale nominal scale interval scale

Ratio Scale

Suppose the research goal is to examine the relationship between the primary caregiver's parenting style and child's level of aggression. The research team must control as many extraneous variables as possible. Therefore, the most appropriate method for this study is ___________________________. systematic coding analysis case study naturalistic observation structured observation

Structured Observation

What research design would you use to address the following research question:" How frequently do parents and children engage in conversations about emotions at home?" a-naturalistic observation b-structured observation c-sampling observation d-continuous observation

Naturalistic Observation

Finish the sentence: Observational method is best used to __________________.

describe

In a study by Hubbard et al. (2001), researchers studied the link between boys’ social cognition and aggressive behavior. Two specific types of aggression were examined: proactive and reactive. Aggression was considered proactive if it was “goal-oriented”, for example when one boy teased another boy. Reactive aggression was an angry retaliation, for example, when one boy responded with frustration or anger (e.g., angry face). What is a construct and its operational definition in this example? an angry retaliation with frustration or anger is a construct and reactive aggression is an operational definition. social cognition is a construct and aggression is its operational definition. goal-oriented behavior such as teasing another boy is a construct and proactive aggression is its operational definition. reactive aggression is a construct and an angry retaliation with frustration or anger is its operational definition.

Reactive aggression is a construct and an angry retaliation with frustration or anger is its operational definition.

Observational studies can complement experimental methods. True or False

True

Which of the listed below research goals is most likely to be addressed using observational method. a-Dr. Baumeister and colleagues have asked the following question "Does high self-esteem cause personal and work-related success?". b- How often toddlers engage in altruistic behavior in day-care settings? c-Is empathy biologically rooted? d-does playing music improve learning?

How often toddlers engage in altruistic behavior in day-care settings?

__________________is "the necessary link between laboratory research and "real-world" behavior.

observational method

A researcher studies obedience. She is very familiar with the Milgram experiment, where in a controlled laboratory setting most participants obeyed their authority and administered lethal dose of an electric shock to another person (‘learner’). She believes that due to the controlled nature of this experiment the results are over exaggerated and cannot be applied to real life circumstances. So the researcher wants to conduct an observational study to observe people’s behavior naturally. Her intention is ____________________. to increase internal validity to increase external validity to control extraneous variables that were not controlled in the Milgram experiment. to prove that it isn't the authority that causes people to do immoral things but rather their own personal moral believes that causes them to behave immorally.

To increase external validity

In an observational study by Hubbard et al. (2001), researchers studied a correlation between boys’ social cognition and their aggressive behavior. Suppose that they hypothesized that boys' aggression is driven by their social cognition. Aggression, in such case, is __________ and social cognition is ___________. predictor; criterion criterion; predictor dependent; independent variables independent variable; dependent variable

Criterion Predictor

Describing a phenomenon is too limited in its scope to be considered a good research goal. True or False

False

Suppose a researcher set out to conduct an observational study to follow up on the question raised in Derefinko et al. (2011), which is whether "different facets of impulsivity predict different types of aggression?". It is most likely that aggression will be measured on a(an) __________________. interval ordinal nominal ratio

Nominal

Irwin and Gross (1995) observed children after they played video games with aggressive or nonaggressive themes. One of their findings was that children who played aggressive video games also behaved aggressively more often during free play. Aggression was most likely quantified in terms of its Intensity Frequency Duration Category

Frequency

What research design should be used to study the following research question:"Do mothers and toddlers tend to talk more about emotions when they see sad or happy pictures?" The researcher knows that to be able to compare mother-child conversations , all dyads (i.e., mother-child pairs) would have to see the same sad and happy pictures. structured observations naturalistic observations experimental observations reliable observations

Structured Observations

Observational studies can inform theories. True or False

True

There is some debate about whether intersubjectivity (shared understanding between two or more people) is either present or absent or varies to some degree so that some people will still share it but not as much as others. If you believe in the first scenario (that it is either shared or not), you would have to use what measuring scale? nominal interval ordinal ratio

Nominal

The example of the observational research on inter-subjectivity is used in the text to ___________________________. to demonstrate weaknesses of observational method to illustrate how descriptive studies can explain causes of behavior to illustrate how descriptive studies can lead to new discoveries to demonstrate high internal validity of an observational research

to illustrate how descriptive studies can lead to new discoveries

The strength of observational method is that it provides high internal validity. True or False

False

Suppose a researcher sets out to conduct an observational study to follow up on the question raised in Derefinko et al. (2011), which is whether "different facets of impulsivity predict different types of aggression?". Impulsivity, in this study, is a (an)__________________and aggression is a (an)__________________________. a-independent variable; dependent variable b-criterion; predictor c-predictor; dependent variable d- predictor; criterion

Predictor Criterion

Suppose a study investigates whether study performance varies for men and women based on the time of the day. Specifically, 25 men and 25 women are recruited; all participants are randomly assigned to either day or night study conditions. This is ___________________________.

2 X 2 factorial design

A researcher randomly assigns participants to test their liking of a high calorie drink. The ________ is the comparison group and the ________ is the experimental group in this example. unflavored drink group; flavored drink group high calorie group; zero calorie group flavored drink group; unflavored drink group low calorie group; high calorie group

Low calorie group High calorie group

Suppose an instructor is also a researcher who wants to know if engaging students in a research project of their own can increase their overall critical thinking. She decides to test this using students in her own class. Specifically, the instructor allows students to choose either to conduct their own research or to simply take the final exam. At the end of the semester, she tests students' critical thinking by giving them a survey. She then, compares the scores of those who conducted their own research with the ones who simply opted in to take the final exam. In addition, the researcher included the overall grade that each student received in the class to rule out the possibility that the overall performance the class was the cause of higher critical thinking scores. The overall performance in the class is potentially ________________

A Confounding Variable

If you have to eliminate individual differences across the conditions, you have to conduct ____________________ a factorial experiment a sequential experiment a within-subjects design experiment a between-subjects design experiment

a within-subjects design experiment

Forty participants are recruited and assigned to all three conditions: A. Studying in the morning B. Studying in the afternoon C. Studying in the evening. The conditions are fully counterbalanced. This is a ___________________ a latin square design a mixed factorial design a within-subjects design a between-subjects design

a mixed factorial design

In a within-subjects experiment, subjects are required to perform a complex motor task for the dependent variable. You find that subjects perform better in the second treatment than in the first. You conclude that your independent variable had a significant effect on motor behavior. However, an alternative explanation is that ________ produced a carryover effect. individual differences Fatigue placebo learning or practice effect

learning or practice effect

A drawback of testing effectiveness of a program treatment in a within-subjects design is that the subjects can get better on their own over time the external validity of this design is lower than in a between-subjects design the sample size is too small to allow researchers to draw strong conclusions subjects' individual characteristics (e.g., personality, prior mental problems) could potentially confound the outcomes of the study.

the subjects can get better on their own over time

A design in which different subjects are randomly assigned to the various groups in the experiment is a ________ design. between-subjects repeated measures single-subject within-subjects

Between-Subjects

Suppose an instructor is also a researcher who wants to know if engaging students in a research project of their own can increase their understanding of science. She decides to test this using students in her own class. Specifically, the instructor allows students to choose either to conduct their own research or to simply take the final exam. At the end of the semester, she tests students' understanding of science by giving them a survey. She then, compares the scores of those who conducted their own research with the ones who simply opted in to take the final exam. The group of students who conducted their own research is said to be __________________.

the experimental condition

In an experiment on the effects of alcohol on memory, participants are first tested after drinking a nonalcoholic beverage and then tested again after drinking an alcoholic beverage. This is an example of a ________ design. matched pairs single-subject within-subjects between-subjects

Within-Subjects

Dr. Franke is conducting an experiment on group decision making. The experiment will run for an entire academic semester. Dr. Franke runs his experimental group at the beginning of the semester and his control group at the end of the semester. What is one potential extraneous variable that can affect the dependent variable and reduce the internal validity of the study? including only two groups practice effect carryover effect time (i.e., that different groups were run at different times during the semester).

time (i.e., that different groups were run at different times during the semester).

A key advantage of random assignment is that it makes ________ about the same in each group. a-the levels of the independent variable b-the dependent variable c-individual differences of participants d-the timing of a manipulation

Individual differences of participants

13. Forty participants are recruited and assigned to all three conditions: A. Studying in the morning B. Studying in the afternoon C. Studying in the evening. The conditions are fully counterbalanced. The order of the conditions is __________________________

A between subjects IV

Suppose subjects are randomly assigned to one of the three conditions: Classical Music Session: Participants listen to a selected piece of classical music (e.g., Beethoven's Symphony No. 5) while completing cognitive tasks. Pop Music Session: Participants listen to a selected piece of pop music (e.g., a popular song from the current charts) while completing cognitive tasks. No Music Session: Participants complete cognitive tasks in silence. At the end of the sessions, participants complete three cognitive tasks: memory recall, attention tests, and problem-solving exercises. a between-subjects design a sequential design a factorial design a within-subjects design

It is a between subjects design.

In a factorial design, the “main effects” are never interpreted because they yield no interesting information. the effects of the most important independent variables on your dependent variable. the separate effects of each independent variable on your dependent variable. the changes in the effect of one independent variable over levels of a second.

The separate effects of each independent variable on your dependent variable

Dr. Harris conducted a two-factor experiment. She plots her results on a graph and notices that the lines on the graph are not parallel (which is confirmed when she runs a statistical analysis). This pattern suggests the presence of an interaction between two independent variables. only one main effect. two main effects. none of these

an interaction between two independent variables.

Suppose a study investigates how different study environments and times of day affect test performance in individuals. Conditions: Quiet Room in the Morning Quiet Room in the Evening Noisy Room in the Morning Noisy Room in the Evening It is a __________________________

2x2 Factorial design

Random assignment is a procedure used to ensure that each participant has the same likelihood of being selected to a given group to control for__________________________. a. individual differences of participants b. the levels of the independent variable c. the dependent variable d. the timing of a manipulation

individual differences of participants

Choose All examples of experimental manipulation. A researcher observed and coded 25 female only and 25 male only commercials. To measure the effectiveness of a parenting training program, all parents received the training. One group of subjects viewed a serious of photos of helpless and vulnerable children while another group of participants viewed photos of kittens and puppies. In a study, one group of parents participates in a parenting training program while another group of parents gets financial support.

a. One group of subjects viewed a serious of photos of helpless and vulnerable children while another group of participants viewed photos of kittens and puppies. b. In a study, one group of parents participates in a parenting training program while another group of parents gets financial support.

A factorial design always has more than one dependent variable. independent variable. more than one confounding variable level of a single independent variable.

Independent variable

21. Suppose subjects are randomly assigned to one of the three conditions: * Classical Music Session: Participants listen to a selected piece of classical music (e.g., Beethoven's Symphony No. 5) while completing cognitive tasks. * Pop Music Session: Participants listen to a selected piece of pop music (e.g., a popular song from the current charts) while completing cognitive tasks. * No Music Session: Participants complete cognitive tasks in silence. At the end of the sessions, participants complete three cognitive tasks: memory recall, attention tests, and problem-solving exercises. Select one potential issue that may reduce the internal validity of this experiment. Potential fatigue between the conditions. Subjects' individual differences in music taste may affect the outcome. The order at which the music was delivered. There are not enough conditions to properly generalize the results to larger population.

Subjects' individual differences in music taste may affect the outcome.

In cases where you want to assess changes in performance as a function of increasing exposure to treatment conditions, the most appropriate design is a ________ design. a-between-subjects b-combined c-correlational d-within-subjects

within-subjects

Choose the best answer: Why do social scientists use theory of probability to test their hypotheses? a-Because qualitative research is not considered scientific. b-Because inferences about the results are based on a sample of a population. c-Social scientist use theory of probability to gain scientific status and recognition for their theories. d-Using theory of probability for hypothesis testing is only one of the widely accepted options in quantitative research.

Because inferences about the results are based on a sample of a population.

My variable was measured using an interval scale. However, after reviewing its distribution I noticed that some of the values were completely off (they were outliers). I should probably use ___________________as my average.

The Median

My variable is nominal. I should use ________________ as my average. standard deviation the mode the median the mean

The Mode

Suppose you hypothesize that reality tv shows are less cognitively stimulating than non-reality shows. You will commit a type II error if _________________________.

you failed to reject the null hypothesis, when in fact, reality tv shows are less cognitively stimulating than non-reality tv shows.

Suppose you conduct a study to compare reality and non-reality TV shows. You make a prediction that reality shows are less cognitively stimulating than non-reality tv shows. Your null hypothesis is _______________ and your alternative hypothesis is___________________________. a-reality and non-reality TV shows are equally not cognitively stimulating; reality shows are less cognitively stimulating. b-reality and non-reality shows are equally not cognitively stimulating; non-reality shows are less cognitively stimulating. c-reading books is more cognitively stimulating; reality shows are more cognitively stimulating. d-reality shows are less cognitively stimulating; non-reality shows are less cognitively stimulating.

reality and non-reality TV shows are equally not cognitively stimulating; reality shows are less cognitively stimulating.

The type of descriptive statistic that gives you the most representative value in a set of data is_____________________.

Central Tendency

Suppose you conduct a study to compare violent and non-violent video games. You make a prediction that more violent video games tend to be more cognitively stimulating than non-violent video games. Your null hypothesis is _______________ and your alternative hypothesis is ________________. violent video games are more cognitively stimulating; violent and non-violent video games are equally not cognitively stimulating violent and non-violent video games are equally not cognitively stimulating; violent video games are more cognitively stimulating. reading books is more cognitively stimulating; violent video games are more cognitively stimulating. violent video games are more cognitively stimulating; violent video games are less cognitively stimulating.

violent and non-violent video games are equally not cognitively stimulating; violent video games are more cognitively stimulating.

I measured the degree of violence present in the video games by rating them on a scale of 1 to 10. I should use ______________as my average.

Mean/Median

When I calculated all three averages for my variable (mean, mode and median), all three were very similar. This tells me what about my distribution? It is normally distributed It is skewed to the left This doesn't tell you anything about the distribution of the data It is skewed to the right

It is normally distributed

Suppose you conduct a study to look at the link between the stereotypical images in TV commercials and the types of products that these commercials advertise. You make a prediction that household products commercials will include more stereotypical images of men and women than non-household products commercials. Your null hypothesis is _______________ and your alternative hypothesis is___________________________. there is a difference between the stereotypical images in TV commercials and the types of products that the TV commercials advertise;there is no difference between the stereotypical images in TV commercials and the types of products that the TV commercials advertise there is no difference between the stereotypical images in TV commercials and the types of products that the TV commercials advertise; commercials that advertise household products will have more stereotypes of men and women than non-household products commercials. there will be less stereotypes in commercials targeting young audience; there will be more stereotypes in commercials targeting older audience. commercials that advertise household products will have more stereotypes of men and women than non-household products commercials; there is no difference between the stereotypical images in TV commercials and the types of products that the TV commercials advertise

there is no difference between the stereotypical images in TV commercials and the types of products that the TV commercials advertise; commercials that advertise household products will have more stereotypes of men and women than non-household products commercials.

To reduce chances of committing a type I error, one can ____________________________. this cannot be controlled accept a lower alpha level accept a higher alpha level rerun the analysis

accept a lower alpha level

I used the General Social Survey data to correlate the following variables: the highest year of school completed by the respondents (ranging from 0 to 20 years) and the number of children they have. The following results I obtained: r=-.273*** and p < .000. What can I conclude? Since there is a significant negative correlation, I can infer that people with more education tend to have more children. Since there is a significant negative correlation, I can infer that people with more education tend to have fewer children. Since the correlation is not significant, I cannot make any inferences. The correlation is significant and positive which means that more educated people have more children.

Since there is a significant negative correlation, I can infer that people with more education tend to have fewer children.

Suppose I would like to know if moral reasoning and empathy are associated. What statistics should I use to address my question, given that both variables were measured on an interval scale? central tendency dispersion pearson correlation (coefficient) independent samples t test

pearson correlation (coefficient)

What is data? measured variables that come from experimental studies constructs. All observations that have been measured and converted into numbers. people with observations

All observations that have been measured and converted into numbers.

Data collected by the US Census Bureau is an example of __________________________________. unreliable data content analysis archival data unscientific data

archival data

How do researchers account for individual differences in an experiment, methodologically? by using a test statistic to determine the likelihood that something other than the manipulation caused differences in a dependent measure between groups by allowing participants chose which group to participate in, instead of randomly assigning participants to groups by making sure that participants give full consent prior to the experiment and are fully debriefed after the experiment by using random assignment to make individual differences about the same in each group

by using random assignment to make individual differences about the same in each group

Suppose you bought a house in a neighborhood, where home prices range from $120,000 to $500,000; but mostly stay within the $200,000 price range. You want to impress your friends by embellishing the average home price in your neighborhood. So you use _________________ as the average home price. median mode mean sum

Mean

You read that the average height for men in US is about 5 foot and 10 inches tall. For this number to be meaningful, it must be ______________________. the mean the mode the median any average can be used in this case

any average can be used in this case

Suppose you conduct a study to look at the link between the degree of violence in video games' content and their level of competitiveness. You make a prediction that video games that are more violent tend to also be more competitive. Your null hypothesis is _______________ and your alternative hypothesis is___________________________. there is a weak link between the degree of violence in the video games' content and their competitiveness; there is a strong link between violent video games and their competitiveness. more violent video games are more competitive; there is no link between the degree of violence in the video games' content and their competitiveness; there is no link between the degree of violence in the video games' content and their competitiveness; more violent video games are less competitive. there is no link between the degree of violence in the video games' content and their competitiveness; more violent video games are more competitive.

there is no link between the degree of violence in the video games' content and their competitiveness; more violent video games are more competitive.

A study of Polish women found that out of 2800 randomly selected surveyed women, 89% of them had their first child at 30 years of age and older. As a critical thinker what else would you want to know to make sense of this finding? What was the age of the researcher? What is a normal age at which women have babies currently? Did the survey include men? The sample is large. Thus, the results are robust to conclude that women in Poland have babies later in life than in other countries.

What is a normal age at which women have babies currently?

Suppose you observed people interacting in two types of groups, small and large. You hypothesize that people will smile more in large groups than in small groups. Your criterion variable is frequencies of smiling. What test should you perform? multiple regression chi-square test an independent samples t test paired samples t test

an independent samples t test

You will select the statistical test based on______________________ The measurement scale of the variables number of the dependent and independent variables number of the levels of the independent variables nature of the research question

The measurement scale of the variables number of the dependent and independent variables number of the levels of the independent variables nature of the research question

An instructor wants to examine the average score on the final exam. She wants to make sure that the questions weren't too difficult (and unfair). Her assumption was that if the questions were too difficult/unfair, the average should be very low (60s/out of 100). She calculates the mean of the scores and receives a score of 65. But she doesn't realize that a few students did not take the exam and automatically received a score of 0. Her conclusion is that the questions were too difficult. Is she correct?

no, she should have calculated the median.

Please see the picture below and choose the right statement about what it represents. Note: the two variables are final exam and final grades a-Students who earned higher grades on the final exam earned lower final grades. b- Signifcant negative correlation c- Students who earned higher grades on the final exam also earned higher final grades. d-Final exam and final grades are not significantly correlated which means no inferences can be made.

Students who earned higher grades on the final exam also earned higher final grades.

One variable in your research project is the gender of TV audience. What would be an appropriate measure of its central tendency? a-mode b-mean c-median d-variance

Mode

Suppose your data is normally distributed and measured on an interval scale, what would be an appropriate measure of central tendency to use to describe it? a-median b-mode c-variance d-mean

Mean

Choose the most accurate statement about how a hypothesis is"proved" in social sciences. a-A hypothesis is proved by testing the alternative statistical hypothesis. b-A hypothesis is proved by calculating the probability of it being correct. c-A hypothesis is said to be 'proved' when the alternative hypothesis can be rejected. d- A hypothesis is proved by calculating the probability of obtaining the same results by chance alone.

A hypothesis is proved by calculating the probability of obtaining the same results by chance alone

I was interested to see if students' performance in my classes differ based on their major. I was curious about students majoring in psychology, predicting that their performance will be better than the students of other majors. My predictor variable is major (psychology is coded as 1 and other majors as 0) My criteria variables are: final grades and grades on all quizzes a-Psychology students outperformed students of other majors as their final grades and their grades on the quizzes were significantly higher than those of other students. b-Psychology students had significantly lower final grades than other students; however, they had higher scores on the quizzes. c-The p values were too high, thus, I couldn't reject the null hypotheses. Thus, no inferences can be made. d-Psychology students had significantly higher final grades than other students; however, they did not differ in their scores on the quizzes.

Psychology students had significantly higher final grades than other students; however, they did not differ in their scores on the quizzes.

Midterm Review Questions (Exams) Flashcards

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