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NEUR 321 > Midterm1 > Flashcards

Midterm1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Neuroscience definition

A

Study of the nervous system

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2
Q

Psychology definition

A

Study of the mind

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3
Q

Mentalism ‘Theory’

A

Aristotle
Human intellectual functions are produced by the psyche (mind), a nonmaterial entitity
The brain’s purpose was to cool the blood
Psyche - proposed to be the source of human behaviour
-independent of the body

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4
Q

Dualism ‘theory’

A

Descartes
Thought the mind and body must be linked to form a person (duo)
- Definition: behaviour is controlled by 2 (dual) entities: a nonmaterial mind and a material body
- Hypothesized that the mind resides in the pineal gland where it directs fluid flow through the ventricles and into the muscles to move the body

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5
Q

Materialism idea

A

Darwin
Position that behaviour can be explained as a function of the nervous system without recourse to the mind
- Argues for objective and measurable descriptions of behaviour that can be referenced to brain activity
- Nonmaterial entity for mind - this idea was thrown out the window

Modern brain theory is materialistic

Darwin, however, did not propose a mechanism through which genes were inherited

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6
Q

behavioural neuroscience

A

the field that relates behaviour to biological processes
- how the brain regulates behaviour
- also how behaviour and experience can affect the brain
- Biological Psychology = behavioural neuroscience

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7
Q

What are some tasks faced by all living things?

A

Avoid harm or damage
secure energy and essential nutrients
secure conditions for reproduction

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8
Q

Darwin’s idea of Natural Selection. 3 Facts and 1 Inference

A
  1. Idvls of a given species are not identical - that is there is variation among individuals
  2. Some of this variation can be inherited (passed on from parent to offspring)
  3. Not all offspring survive. Some idvls live while others don’t

Inference: Variation among individuals affects the probability that they will survive to reproduce and pass along their traits/genes while doing so.

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9
Q

Mendel

A

Defined the laws of inheritance
Genes come in pairs and are inherited in distinct units, one from each parents

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10
Q

Hugo de Vries

A

Described the mechanism of mutation that leads to new traits forming - ie difference in phenotypes

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11
Q

What is the Linnaeus system?

A

An organization of animals that is based on morphology. It may not correctly reflect evolutionary history
ex Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

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12
Q

What is modern taxonomy?

A

An organization of animals based on evolutionary history. Compares the DNA to sort out evolutionary lineages. Can predict how long ago two species diverged from a common ancestor based on spontaneous mutation rates.

We now use a combination of both the Linnaeus classification system and modern taxonomy.

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13
Q

How many years ago was the first simple nervous system found in the fossil record?

A

700 million years ago

250 million ya - first brain

3-4 million ya - first human-like brain
1- 200 000 years ago - modern human brain

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14
Q

The Neuron Doctrine

A

Nervous systems are made up of discrete, individual, polarized nerve cells that contact eachother at synaptic junctions and form the developmental, functional, structural and trophic units of nervous systems.

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15
Q

Development of the Neuron Doctrine

A

Leeuwenhoek - POstulasted that nerves are tubes containing fluids/spirit carrying sensations from and to the brain
Purkinje - Identified cells within the nervous system
Schwann- Enunciates cell theory (how cells work/form)
Waller - discovered concept of anterograde nerve degeneration
Gudden - Traced connections between the main centres of the brain. Discovered trophic support
Kolliker - Supplied proof that nerve fibres are continuous with nerve cells

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16
Q

What were some key advances that lead to the development of the neuron doctrine?

A

Advances in microscopy - invention of compound light microscope
Golgi stain - guy named Golgi invented a stain for neurons although it only stain about 20% of the neurons which led to underestimating the amount of neurons in the brain - Why golgi thought neurons formed a continuous network (not discrete cells)

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17
Q

Continuous network vs Discrete cells in the nervous system

A

Cajal - thought neurons were discrete cells (neuronistas) and that they were NOT physically connected
Golgi - thought neurons formed a continuous network (reticulum). This was largely because the stain for neurons he developed only stain about 20% of the neurons and caused him to inaccurately picture brain functionality

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18
Q

Unity of Transmission

A

Synaptic contacts between two cells can be either excitatory or inhibitory, but will always be of the same type (with a couple exceptions)

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19
Q

Dale’s Law

A

Each nerve terminal releases a single type of transmitter (with a couple of exceptions)

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20
Q

Who is the only one that has a ‘true brain’?

A

The phylum Chordata
All of the members have a brain and spinal cord
Brain complexity generally mirrors behavioural complexity (largely due to proportionally larger cerebral cortex)

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21
Q

What are the three subphyla of Chordata?

A

Vertebrata, Tunicata, Cephalochordata

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22
Q

What characteristics of the brain can vary between different mammalian brains?

A

Size (of brain areas, brain), size of olfactory bulb and size of cortex
Number of cells
Density of cells

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23
Q

What types of changes are there within neuroplasticity?

A
  • chemical change
  • structural change
  • functional change

These changes occur in response to inputs from the environment and growth ie. learning, experiencing

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24
Q

Plasticity definition

A

the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different environments
ie. can alter traits based on changes in the environment

behavioural plasticity - ex. tool use

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25
Two approaches to studying evolution of the brain/ancestral brains
1. Endocasts -look at skull/fill skull with a model to visualize what brain looked like 2. study the brains of organisms who have not changed much since ancient times (salamanders, opposums) #2 is beneficial because you can see the live behaviour of the animals and compare it to their brain structures/ relative size of parts of their brain etc.
26
Cerebellum
- Part of the hind brain associated with motor control and sensory processing - Not included in the brain stem - Gets larger specifically in mammals and birds compared with other vertebrates (Birds and mammals have complex motion/ sensory processing and thus require larger brain areas for these functions)
27
encephalization factor
a concept implying an increase in brain size relative to body size associated with the evolution of the brain and intelligence - on a graph, the encephalization factor is the distance away from the line. The further the distance from the line, the larger the encephalization factor
28
Changes in size of mammalian brain parts with increase in body size
- Medulla takes up a smaller portion of the brain - Cerebellum maintains the same proportion of the brain size - IsoCortex takes up a larger portion in the brain
29
Brain areas dedicated to visual processing in different vertebrate groups
Lampreys - Midbrain Amphibians/Reptiles - Midbrain and Tectum Mammals - Midbrain and Tectum and Cortex
30
Sulci vs gyri
Sulci are grooves (U) while gyri are folds (n)
31
Forebrain
Consists of the telencephalon for sure and maybe the diencephalon
32
What makes up the telencephalon?
isocortex, basal ganglia, limbic system
33
What makes up the diencephalon?
Thalamus and hypothalamus. Connect the forebrain and midbrain
34
What makes up the midbrain?
Mesencephalon 2 pairs of bumps on the back of the brain stem -superior colliculus -inferior colliculus Also includes: - the substantia nigra (part of the basal ganglia) - red nucleus - connected with motor neurons in spinal cord - start of the reticular formation (sleep and arousal, temperature, motor control)
35
What makes up the hind brain?
The metencephalon and the myelencephalon
36
What structures make up the metencephalon?
Cerebellum, pons
37
What structures make up the myelencephalon?
medulla
38
What does the brain stem include?
The midbrain + hindbrain - the cerebellum Connects the brain to the spinal cord
39
Idea of phrenology
That certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules (Gall, Penfield, Broca, Wernicke) Current view is that some actions have more localized parts of the brain but others, like more complex behaviours, require multiple brain areas.
40
Aggregate Field theory (Mass action)
Idea that the brain acts as a single functional unit Current view is that some actions have more localized parts of the brain but others, like more complex behaviours, require multiple brain areas.
41
Basal ganglia
Part of the telencephalon (forebrain) 3 pairs of nuclei 2 associated pairs of nuclei Includes: caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus Substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus
42
What brain parts are part of the limbic system?
thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala Involved in emotion, learning, memory, smell
43
Thalamus
Lots of nuclei. Filters sensory input - output to cortex
44
Hypothalamus
Lots of nuclei. Involved in homeostatic and endocrine functions
45
What does the pons do?
motor and sensory functions input from some cranial nerves (sends output)
46
medulla
Receives input from the cranial nerves innervating the neck and the tongue Regulates breathing and heart rate
47
Cerebellum
Part of the hind brain Highly folded structure - neurons (Purkinje cells) tightly packed with lots of dendrites Involved in motor control (fine motor movements) and various cognitive functions
48
Cerebral Cortex
Often called the neocortex/isocortex/cortex - Well-developed in birds and mammals - Has 6 layers of gray matter on top of white matter. - Seat of cognition (Zero activity indicative of 'brain death') -Includes the limbic cortex (3-4 layers of grey matter) - 2500 cm2 SA 1.5 - 3 mm thick
49
Allocortex
aka mesocortex aka archicortex - includes the hippocampus, and the olfactory cortex - has only 3 layers - projects information into the cerebral cortex
50
Layers of motor and sensory cortex
Layers l-lll: Integrative function Layer lV: Input of sensory information Layer V-Vl: Output to other parts of the brain
51
Cortical columns
Cohesive processing units - All of the cells in the column respond to the same stimulus - Adjacent columns respond to slightly different stimuli - Span the entire thickness of the cortex - The columns communicate with the columns next door - distinguish between stimuli (each respond slightly differently than the other)
52
What is a tract?
A collection of axons/nerve fibres running along in the CNS
53
What is a nerve?
A collection of axons/nerve fibres running along outside of the CNS (in the PNS)
54
What are the divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
Cranial nerves, spinal nerves (somatic NS), autonomic nervous system
55
Cranial nerves
12 pairs Input and output for sensory organs and the face Each cranial nerve deals with half of the face They ALL emerge from the brain stem EXCEPT for the optic and olfactory nerve
56
Which cranial nerves DO NOT emerge from the brain stem?
Olfactory and Optic nerve
57
Where does the olfactory nerve emerge from ?
The olfactory bulb
58
Where does the optic nerve emerge from?
The lateral colliculis, a swelling on the temporal lobe of each hemisphere
59
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
31 Pairs of spinal nerves 8 Cervical 12 Thoracic 5 Lumbar 5 Sacral 1 Coccygeal
60
Bell-Magendie Law
The dorsal roots relay sensory information (AFFERENT) and the ventral roots relay motor information away from the CNS (EFFERENT)
61
Sensory/Motor segregation in the brain
Sensory is dorsal - Midbrain - Colliculus Motor is ventral - Midbrain - Tegmentum The thalamus and the cortex are EXCEPTIONS to the dorsal/ventral associations with sensory/motor, respectively.
62
Sensory/Motor segregation in the brain
Sensory is dorsal - Midbrain - Colliculus Motor is ventral - Midrbrain - Tegmentum The thalamus and the cortex are EXCEPTIONS to the dorsal/ventral associations with sensory/motor, respectively
63
What are the two main divisions of the Autonomic NS?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS Consists of neurons both in the CNS and PNS - Controlled by neurons in the CNS but there are also collections of neurons outside the CNS (ganglia) that play a role as well
64
Where do sympathetic nerves exit the CNS?
Thoracic and Lumbar regions They innervate the sympathetic chain ganglia that are adjacent to the spinal cord. Fight or flight
65
Where do the parasympathetic nerves exit the CNS?
Cranial and sacral regions Rest and digest The ganglia that these nerves innervate are further away from the spinal cord, adjacent to target organs
66
meninges
3 Layers Dura Mater - tough mother - outer layer that is connected to the skull - surrounds the brain like a sac Arachnoid Layer - thin, delicate membrane that follows the contours of the brain. Pia Mater - delicate tissue that clings to the brain surface
67
Which meninge layers does the cerebral spinal fluid flow between?
The Arachnoid layer and the Pia mater
68
Ventricles
4 Interconnected compartments within the brain Waste management system Lateral ventricles, 3rd ventricle, 4th ventricle Fluid-filled w/ CSF - cushion and support the brain
69
What produces cerebral spinal fluid?
Choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles Cushions Brings nutrients to the brain and takes away waste. Flows through the ventricular system then exits the CNS
70
Circle of Willis
Provides collateral blood flow between the anterior and posterior regions of the brain
71
3 major arteries in the brain
Anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral artery
72
Parts of the axon
Axon hillock (where the axon starts) Can branch into axon collaterals Near the end, there are branches called teleodendria Each ends with a terminal button Between the terminal button and the next dendritic spine is a synapse Axon collaterals can feedback to regulate the activity of the neuron (negative feedback system)- this prevents over activation. Turns self off after sending message.
73
How does neuron size predict function?
- neurons with long extensions likely relay information- neurons with short extensions likely engage in local processing
74
How many dendrites do sensory neurons have?
One simple dendrite Efficient relay cells
75
Stellate cells
INTERNEURON - star-shaped Collect information over a small area and project it locally Many dendrites extend out from the cell body. Short axon
76
Pyramidal cells
INTERNEURON Collect info in a small area but can project it a long way Has a long axon and a pyramid shaped cell body Has 2 sets of dendrites, apical and basal Carries information from the cortex to the rest of the brain and spinal cord
77
Purkinje Cells
INTERNEURON Extremely branched dendrites arranged in a fan-shape Carry information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain and spinal cord One of the largest cells in the brain
78
Where are motor neurons located?
Cerebral Cortex, brain stem, and spinal cord They have bushy dendrites to collect information Usually large cell body and axon
79
Motor neurons
Have bushy dendrites to collect lots of information Connect to muscles and therefore PRODUCE BEHAVIOUR Large cell body and axon
80
Grandmother cell
Theory associated with function of neurons that states that each neuron controls a different aspect of behaviour - this idea is generally rejected now INSTEAD - neurons work together in complex networks to code for specific aspects of behaviour --> the loss of one or more neurons would not affect behaviour typically, network can still function - NETWORK HYPOTHESIS
81
Network Hypothesis
INSTEAD - neurons work together in complex networks to code for specific aspects of behaviour --> the loss of one or more neurons would not affect behaviour typically, network can still function - NETWORK HYPOTHESIS
82
Ependymal cells
Cells that line the ventricles of the brain They help generate cerebrospinal fluid and create/assist in the flow of the fluid FOUND IN THE CNS
83
Microglia
FOUND IN THE CNS Involved in the immune system and repair in the CNS They clear dead cells (including apoptic neurons) - they work similarly to macrophages
84
Astroglia (Astrocyte)
FOUND IN THE CNS They are star-shaped and provide structural support. They convey nutrients between the blood vessels and the neurons Regulate blood flow Help form the tight junctions for the blood brain barrier! Can play a role in healing the brain after damage
85
Satellite glial cells
SUPPORT CELLS FOUND IN THE PNS These are small cells that surround cell bodies of neurons located in the autonomic NS Resemble the astrocytes of the CNS and assist in regulation of the external chemical environment They are very sensitive to injury and may exacerbate pathological pain - lots of pain felt might be due to injury in these cells
86
Oligodendrocytes
FOUND IN THE CNS These cells myelinate axons in the CNS. One oligodendrocyte can myelinate parts of multiple different axons - Branch and myelinate several axon segments on different cells
87
Schwann Cells
FOUND IN THE PNS Myelinate axons in the PNS Myelinate only one segment of only one cell. There are multiple Schwann cells on a single myelinated axon.
88
Glioma
A brain tumor arisen from abhorrent glial cells
89
Multiple Sclerosis
A disease caused by damaged myelin on neuron axons. This affects the speed of transmission of neuronal signals and therefore affects communication in the nervous system
90
Why is repair within the CNS nearly impossible?
Formation of Glial scars - Astrocytes group around the injury and block communication through the axon. Blocks messages from getting communicated. In the PNS, repair is possible due to glia
91
Successful Nerve regeneration in the PNS
Wallerian degeneration in the DISTAL END of the injured neuron. Myelin sheath and fibres are degenerated and consumed by macrophages. Distal end is removed and there is regrowth from the proximal end. Schwann cells regress and divide Schwann cells form a path along which the axon can regrow and they myelinate the new axon.
92
Unsuccessful nerve regeneration
In the PNS Wallerian degeneration whereby myelin and fibres are degenerated and phagocytized by macrophages. But then too many Schwann cells invade and form a blockage/scar that inhibits signal transduction - This nerve will not be capable of reinnervating the given muscle.
93
How many protein coding genes do humans have?
About 22 300
94
Tay-Sachs disease
A recessive disease caused by the enzyme hexosaminidase A (HexA) being non-functional. This enzyme normally breaks down certain lipids in the brain Thus - when non-functional, the lipids will build up which can cause seizures, blindness, degenerating motor and mental function. It eventually leads to death. Because this disease is recessive, both alleles must be of the mutant genotype for the idvl to have the disease
95
Huntington's disease
A dominant disease. Caused by a mutant huntington protein building up in NS cells -- this kills brain cells, especially in the basal ganglia and cortex It is a movement disorder characterized by exaggerated movements (chorea) Causes memory impairments and dementia Symptoms often begin to appear after the idvl has had children
96
Down Syndrome
When an idvl has 47 chromosomes (Trisomy 21) instead of 46 This has profound effects on phenotype including changes to facial features, mental function, and susceptability to disease (Leukemia, Alzheimer's, Respiratory infection)

NEUR 321 (6 decks)

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