migration Flashcards

Question

what were skilled workers like within the low countries

Answer 1

Most migrants from the Low Countries worked in the south-east of England It was easy for them to find all sorts of trade in England as the Black Death of 1348-51 had killed many workers Weaving was one of the jobs that workers from the Low Countries did. Historically, English sheep produced excellent wool which was exported to the Low Countries were it was woven into cloth. Rather than pay to export the wool, it made more sense to move the weavers to England where more money could be made by selling the high-quality cloth that they made King Henry III actually invited weavers from the Low Countries to move to England

Answer 2

Most migrants from the Low Countries found work in south-east England, although many established themselves and their families further afield. * Labouring work, whether in industries such as brickmaking or in farming, was easy to find, especially after the Black Death* of 1348–51. * Many migrants were skilled craftsmen. Many saddlers, tailors, brewers and shoemakers either found work with established companies or set up on their own. Weavers were a special group of migrants. English sheep produced excellent wool. This was exported to the Low Countries where it was woven into high-quality cloth. Although English kings taxed every woolsack (literally a sack of wool) exported, they realised they would make more money if the weavers from the Low Countries were invited to weave cloth in England. There was more money to be made exporting high-quality cloth! In 1270, King Henry III was the first monarch to invite many craft guilds beleived migrants were stealing their jobs and selling goods like cloth at lower prices than them which led to hostility merchants belonging to the

Answer 3

’ve been to England many times. The sea crossing is quick and easy; much better than making a difficult and dangerous overland journey to somewhere I don’t know. The Black Death wiped out over half of the population of England. There will be plenty of work. Wages in England are high because there werent enough people to do the work. These riots and rebellions mean I can’t be sure of regular work. I would do better setting up somewhere else. In the 1330s large numbers of weavers emigrated to England from the Low Countries. This was for two main reasons: Edward III allowed them to set up their own guild* if the English weavers proved difficult; and he temporarily banned the export of English wool so that weavers from the Low Countries would have to come to England if they wanted to carry on weaving high-quality cloth.

Answer 4

Rich banking families from Lombardy began arriving in England in the 1220s, settling with their families. They had heard that there were problems with the Jewish moneylenders. So they planned to take over from them, lending money to kings and businesses. In doing so, they intended to make huge profits because of the interest they would charge

Answer 5

The bankers simply used a loophole in the ruling that allowed them to pay a fine for charging interest on loans. The fine was far less than the interest they charged. Finally, in 1265, the Pope allowed Christians to charge interest. Lombardy bankers and their families looked forward to living very prosperous lives in England.

Answer 6

he 1560s Walloons from what is now Belgium were suffering under the Spanish Catholic rule of the Duke of Alba. After the Massacre of St Bartholomew’s Day in Paris in 1572, when over 10,000 Huguenot Protestants were murdered, many fled to England. A second, larger, wave of Huguenots fled from France in the 1680s when King Louis XIV revoked a previous royal edict protecting Protestants and they were again attacked. Many Huguenots had difficult and dangerous journeys, escaping France and crossing to England by sea. The final wave of Protestant refugees were the Palatines from the Middle Rhine, part of which is now Germany. They were suffering under French Catholic landlords and very poor harvests. They came because of a 1708 law, the Foreign Protestants Naturalisation Act, which invited European Protestants to come and settle in Britain. Some Palatines also migrated because they hoped to travel from England to a new life in North America.

Answer 7

Although some were rich, with relatives already living here, many refugees were poor and dependent on handouts. The Anglican Church organised collections of money to help to support them. Walloons and Huguenots settled mainly in London and the south-east of England, often setting up communities in distinct areas such as Soho in London. In addition to their religion, Walloons and Huguenots were also welcomed because they brought much-needed skills and wealth that helped boost England’s economy. One particular skill was wool and silk weaving. In places like Canterbury and Spitalfields in East London, Huguenot entrepreneurs employed large numbers of poorer Huguenots as their weavers.

Answer 8

They also introduced many other skills to England, such as feather and fan work, high-quality clockmaking, woodcarving, papermaking, clothing design and cutlery manufacture Not all Protestant refugees received the same welcome as the majority of Huguenots and Walloons. When 13,000 Palatine Germans arrived in the Thames estuary in 1709, £20,000 was raised by church congregations to support them because they were seen as fellow Protestants. However, their initial welcome did not last. They arrived at a time of rising poverty in England with high food prices and rising taxes. Local authorities in London feared that Palatines would be classed as ‘vagrants’ that by law they would have to support under the Poor Laws. When it was discovered that a third of the immigrants were in fact Catholics and arriving because of poverty and not persecution, sympathy for them drained away. In the short-term, the Government set up refugee camps in Blackheath and Clerkenwell. The long-term plan was to ship the Palatine Germans to America but, when that proved too expensive, they decided to send them to Ireland instead. A few refused and managed to find their way to America. Most returned to their homeland, leaving a very few to try to survive in England. For those 3000 that did go to Ireland, it was a disaster. hugenots were allowed their own churches this helped society to become more open to religoud differences

Answer 9

Oliver Cromwell's rule: In the mid-17th century, during the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell and the Parliamentarians emerged victorious. Cromwell's government allowed Jews to return to England in 1656, officially ending the nearly 400-year expulsion. Economic opportunities: Many Jewish individuals were drawn to England because of the economic opportunities available there. England was experiencing rapid economic growth during the Industrial Revolution, and Jewish immigrants saw potential for success in various sectors, including finance, trade, and manufacturing. Religious tolerance: The atmosphere in England became more tolerant towards religious diversity compared to previous centuries. Although anti-Semitism still persisted, Jewish people found relatively more acceptance and freedom to practice their faith in England than in other parts of Europe. Intellectual and cultural contributions: Jewish migrants brought with them their unique intellectual and cultural contributions, enriching the English society in various fields, including academia, arts, sciences, and literature.

Answer 10

Economic contributions: Jewish migrants played a significant role in England's economic development. Many Jewish individuals were involved in finance, trade, and industry, contributing to the growth of the economy. They established businesses, engaged in international trade networks, and made significant investments, helping to stimulate economic activity. Cultural and intellectual enrichment: Jewish migrants brought with them their unique cultural traditions, intellectual pursuits, and educational backgrounds. They made notable contributions to the arts, sciences, literature, and academia, enriching English culture. Jewish individuals have made important contributions to fields such as literature (e.g., Harold Pinter), music (e.g., Gustav Holst), and science (e.g., James Goldsmith). Religious diversity and tolerance: The presence of Jewish migrants helped foster a more diverse and tolerant society in England. Their settlement and practice of Judaism demonstrated a broader acceptance of religious diversity and contributed to the gradual erosion of anti-Semitic attitudes. This, in turn, influenced the development of a more inclusive and multicultural society. Social and philanthropic endeavors: Jewish migrants actively participated in philanthropic efforts, establishing charities and organizations to support various causes. They contributed to social welfare initiatives, healthcare, education, and poverty alleviation. Many Jewish individuals became influential in philanthropy and actively worked towards improving society. Political participation: Jewish migrants also played a role in political life. They became involved in politics, advocating for their rights, promoting social justice, and fighting against discrimination. Jewish individuals held positions in government, and their presence helped shape public discourse on important issues. Holocaust awareness and education: The migration of Jewish survivors of the Holocaust to England had a profound impact on raising awareness about the atrocities committed during World War II. Their experiences and testimonies contributed to Holocaust education and remembrance efforts, ensuring that future generations learned from the past and worked towards preventing such atrocities.

Answer 11

Transatlantic Slave Trade: The transatlantic slave trade involved the forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas, including the British colonies. Africans were captured, sold, and transported across the Atlantic to work on plantations and in other industries, primarily in North and South America and the Caribbean. This brutal and exploitative system resulted in the displacement and forced migration of countless Africans. Colonialism and Exploration: African migration was also influenced by European colonialism and exploratory ventures. European powers, including Britain, established colonies and trading posts in Africa. African individuals were often brought to European countries as servants, attendants, or companions to colonial administrators or explorers. These individuals sometimes stayed in Europe or were later sent back to Africa. Economic and Trade Opportunities: Some Africans migrated voluntarily or were coerced into migration due to economic prospects and trade opportunities. They may have worked as sailors, merchants, or laborers in the shipping and trade industries, facilitating the exchange of goods between Europe and Africa. Cultural Exchange and Diplomacy: African elites and representatives sometimes traveled to European countries during the Early Modern period. These individuals engaged in diplomatic missions, cultural exchanges, or sought to build alliances with European powers. Their travels contributed to the exchange of knowledge, ideas, and cultural practices. Conversion and Religious Motivations: African individuals, particularly from regions such as West Africa, also migrated to Europe due to religious motivations. Some individuals converted to Christianity and joined European religious institutions or missionary efforts. These conversions often facilitated cultural and intellectual exchanges between Africans and Europeans. It's important to note that the experiences of African migrants during this period were marked by extreme disparities, with the majority being forcibly enslaved and subjected to inhumane conditions. African migrants faced racism, exploitation, and the loss of their freedom and cultural identities. The Early Modern period played a significant role in shaping the historical context and legacy of African migration, particularly regarding the transatlantic slave trade. The forced migration of Africans as slaves had a profound and lasting impact on the demographic, social, and cultural landscapes of both Europe and the Americas.

Answer 12

Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade: Many black servants in England during the Early Modern period were enslaved individuals who were brought to the country as a result of the transatlantic slave trade. England had significant involvement in the slave trade, and enslaved Africans were often taken to the British colonies in the Americas. Some of these individuals were then brought to England by their enslavers, either as personal servants or as part of the household staff. Domestic Service and Labor: Black servants were sought after in England for their perceived skills and abilities in domestic service. They were employed as household servants, working in the homes of wealthy individuals, nobility, and members of the gentry. They served in various roles, such as butlers, maids, cooks, footmen, and valets. Exoticism and Fashionable Status: In some cases, the presence of black servants in households was seen as fashionable and a sign of wealth and social status. The association of black servants with exoticism and novelty made them sought after by the upper classes as a means of displaying their wealth and cosmopolitan connections. Diplomatic and Colonial Encounters: Black servants also came to England through diplomatic and colonial encounters. African individuals were sometimes brought to England as attendants, companions, or interpreters for diplomats, colonial administrators, or explorers. These individuals played a role in facilitating communication, cultural exchange, and diplomatic relations between England and African regions. Influence of Colonialism and Empire: England's colonial activities and expansion during the Early Modern period created opportunities for Africans to be brought to the country. With the establishment of colonies in Africa and the Caribbean, some Africans were taken to England as part of the colonial administration or for specialized tasks related to colonial ventures. It is important to note that the experiences of black servants in England during the Early Modern period were varied. Some may have faced exploitation, discrimination, and harsh treatment, while others may have had relatively better living and working conditions. The status and treatment of black servants were influenced by social, economic, and cultural factors, as well as the attitudes prevailing in English society at the time.

Answer 13

Trade and Commerce: Morocco had a thriving trade network with Europe, and Moroccan merchants played a significant role in international trade during that time. Some Moroccans traveled to London to engage in commercial activities, establishing trade connections and participating in the exchange of goods and commodities. Diplomatic Relations: Morocco had diplomatic relations with England during the Elizabethan era. Moroccan ambassadors and envoys visited London as part of diplomatic missions, seeking to establish political alliances, negotiate trade agreements, and foster cultural exchanges. Their presence in London added to the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the city and facilitated diplomatic interactions. Cultural Exchange and Curiosity: Elizabethan London was a hub of cultural exchange, attracting individuals from diverse backgrounds. The presence of Moroccans in the city contributed to this cultural tapestry, sparking curiosity and interest in Moroccan culture, customs, and traditions. Their influence could be seen in the adoption of Moroccan fashion, food, and other aspects of material culture by Elizabethan society. The Moors in Elizabethan Literature: The presence of Moroccans in Elizabethan London had an impact on literature and the arts. Moors, often portrayed as exotic characters, were featured in Elizabethan plays, such as Shakespeare's "Othello." These portrayals reflected the fascination with the "Other" and the cultural cross-pollination happening in London at the time. Intellectual and Scientific Exchange: Moroccans who came to London during the Elizabethan period contributed to intellectual and scientific exchanges. They shared knowledge in various fields, including mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, enriching the intellectual landscape of the city.

Answer 14

ansatlantic Slave Trade: The transatlantic slave trade was still ongoing during this period, and African servants in England were often individuals who had been enslaved and brought to the country. They were part of the vast network of enslaved Africans who were forcibly transported from Africa to work in the British colonies, including the Caribbean and North America. Some of these individuals were later brought to England by their enslavers, either as personal servants or for specific tasks. Domestic Service: African servants were sought after for domestic service in England during the 18th century. Many wealthy households employed African servants as domestic workers, such as butlers, valets, chambermaids, cooks, and footmen. They were valued for their perceived skills, strength, and exotic appeal. Fashion and Exoticism: The presence of African servants in households was seen as fashionable and a symbol of wealth and cosmopolitanism. The association of African servants with exoticism and novelty made them desirable to the upper classes as a way to showcase their status and connections. Diplomatic and Colonial Encounters: African servants also arrived in England through diplomatic and colonial encounters. They were brought as attendants, companions, or interpreters for diplomats, colonial administrators, or explorers. Their presence facilitated communication, cultural exchange, and diplomatic relations between England and various African regions. Influence of Colonialism and Empire: England's colonial activities and the establishment of colonies in Africa and the Americas created opportunities for African servants to be brought to England. Some Africans served in the households of colonial administrators or were employed for specialized tasks related to colonial ventures. It is important to note that the experiences of African servants in England during this period varied. While some may have faced exploitation, discrimination, and harsh treatment, others may have had relatively better living and working conditions. The treatment and status of African servants were influenced by social, economic, and cultural factors prevailing in English society at the time. Regenerate response

Answer 15

Trade and Commerce: India was a major center of trade and commerce during the Early Modern period, known for its valuable goods such as textiles, spices, and precious metals. Indian merchants and traders established networks with European counterparts, including those in England. Some Indians migrated to England to engage in trade and take advantage of the expanding global market. Diplomatic and Colonial Relations: England had diplomatic and colonial relations with various regions in India during the Early Modern period. Indian nobles, diplomats, and representatives traveled to England as part of diplomatic missions or as envoys of local rulers. Their presence facilitated political alliances, trade agreements, and cultural exchanges between India and England. Colonial Administration: As England established colonial rule in parts of India, Indian individuals were brought to England to serve in the colonial administration. They were employed as clerks, translators, interpreters, or in other administrative roles. Some Indians who migrated to England in this context were exposed to European education and ideas, which influenced their perspectives and contributed to intellectual and cultural exchanges. Cultural Curiosity and Display: The presence of Indian individuals in England during the Early Modern period also sparked curiosity and fascination among the English population. Indian servants, courtiers, and other individuals were sometimes brought to England as a display of exoticism and to showcase the wealth and cosmopolitan connections of their employers. Their presence contributed to the cultural diversity and cross-cultural influences in English society. Intellectual and Cultural Contributions: Indian migrants who arrived in England during this period made significant contributions to various fields, including literature, science, and philosophy. Some Indians, such as the scholar and translator Sake Dean Mahomet, left a lasting impact on English intellectual and cultural life. The experiences of Indian migrants in Early Modern England varied depending on their social status, occupation, and individual circumstances. While some individuals may have encountered favorable conditions, others faced prejudice, discrimination, and challenges due to their foreign origin. It is important to recognize that the experiences of Indian migrants were shaped by power dynamics, colonialism, and the prevailing attitudes and perceptions prevalent in English society at the time.

Answer 16

Cultural Exchange: Indian migrants brought with them their rich cultural traditions, including art, music, cuisine, and religious practices. Their presence contributed to a broader cultural exchange, influencing English society and challenging traditional norms. Indian textiles, spices, and other goods also introduced new flavors and styles to the English market. Intellectual and Cultural Contributions: Indian migrants made significant contributions to various fields, including literature, science, and philosophy. They shared knowledge, ideas, and perspectives that influenced intellectual discourse and expanded the horizons of English society. For example, translations of Indian texts and engagement with Indian philosophy and spirituality had a lasting impact on English intellectual thought. Economic Contributions: Indian merchants and traders played a crucial role in the expanding global trade network. They facilitated the exchange of goods between India and England, contributing to the growth of England's economy. The trade connections established by Indian migrants opened up new economic opportunities and enriched the English commercial landscape. Influence on Fashion and Material Culture: Indian textiles, particularly those from regions like Bengal and Gujarat, were highly valued and sought after in England. The introduction of Indian textiles, patterns, and designs influenced English fashion and material culture. Indian fabrics like calico, chintz, and muslin became fashionable and were incorporated into clothing and home furnishings. Culinary Influence: Indian cuisine had an impact on the English culinary scene. The introduction of Indian spices, flavors, and cooking techniques contributed to the development of new recipes and flavors in English cuisine. Dishes like curry became popular and have remained part of the English culinary tradition. Inspiration for English Literature and Art: The presence of Indian migrants in England inspired English writers, artists, and poets. Indian themes, characters, and motifs found their way into literature, art, and theater productions. Indian tales, such as those from the Arabian Nights, influenced English storytelling and imagination

Answer 17

Economic Factors: Economic conditions in Ireland, including poverty, limited opportunities, and land dispossession, have historically driven Irish migration to England. Many Irish people sought employment opportunities in England, particularly in sectors such as construction, agriculture, domestic service, and industrial work. Political and Social Factors: Political and social instability in Ireland, including conflicts, sectarian tensions, and discriminatory policies, also contributed to Irish migration to England. Events like the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and the Great Famine in the mid-19th century caused significant waves of migration. Industrialization and Urbanization: The rapid industrialization and urbanization in England during the 18th and 19th centuries created a demand for labor, drawing many Irish workers seeking employment in factories, mines, and construction projects. Irish migrants played a significant role in the development of industrial centers like Manchester, Liverpool, and Birmingham. Cultural Influence: Irish migrants brought their cultural traditions, language, music, and religious practices to England, enriching the cultural diversity of English society. Irish festivals, such as St. Patrick's Day, became celebrated in England, and Irish music and dance made lasting contributions to the cultural fabric of the country. Political and Labor Movements: Irish migrants in England played active roles in political and labor movements, advocating for workers' rights, social justice, and Irish independence. Irish organizations and societies were formed to support the Irish community and promote their interests. Sporting Influence: Irish migrants had a significant impact on sports in England. They contributed to the development and popularity of sports such as boxing, horse racing, and Gaelic games. Irish athletes and teams achieved success and recognition in various sports in England. Political Integration and Representation: Over time, Irish migrants and their descendants became integrated into English society. They established strong communities and, through political engagement, achieved representation in local councils and national politics. Several prominent politicians in England have had Irish heritage. It is important to note that the experiences and impact of Irish migrants in England were not always positive. They faced discrimination, prejudice, and economic hardships. Irish migration also had complex and sometimes contentious implications for Anglo-Irish relations and identity. Nevertheless, Irish migrants made significant contributions to various aspects of English society, culture, and politics

Answer 18

Push Factors: Jews in Eastern Europe faced various push factors that motivated their migration. These included widespread poverty, limited economic opportunities, religious persecution, and political instability. Anti-Semitic policies and violence also played a role in encouraging Jewish individuals to seek better lives elsewhere. Pull Factors: Industrialized regions, particularly Western Europe and the United States, offered attractive economic prospects. The growth of industrialization and urbanization created new job opportunities in factories, manufacturing, trade, and services. Jewish migrants were drawn to these regions by the promise of better wages, improved living conditions, and greater religious and political freedoms. Industrial Sectors: Jewish migrants found employment in various industrial sectors. They were involved in textiles, garment manufacturing, metalworking, tailoring, shoe-making, tobacco, and other industries. Some Jewish individuals also became involved in entrepreneurship, establishing their own businesses and contributing to local economies. Urban Settlements: Jewish migrants primarily settled in urban areas, forming vibrant Jewish communities in industrial cities. These communities often developed their own cultural, religious, and social institutions, including synagogues, schools, mutual aid societies, and philanthropic organizations. These settlements became centers of Jewish life and culture. Cultural and Intellectual Contributions: Jewish migrants brought with them their cultural traditions, languages, and intellectual pursuits. They made significant contributions to the fields of art, literature, music, theater, and academia in their new host countries. Jewish intellectuals and scholars played vital roles in various disciplines and contributed to the cultural diversity and intellectual richness of their adopted societies. Social Mobility and Integration: Jewish migrants often experienced upward social mobility through their involvement in industrial sectors. Many individuals and families improved their economic status and achieved integration into the broader society over time. However, this process was not without challenges, and Jewish communities also faced discrimination, anti-Semitism, and barriers to full social and political acceptance. Jewish industrial migration had a lasting impact on the societies in which Jewish migrants settled. Their contributions to industrial sectors, culture, and intellectual pursuits enriched their host countries and played a significant role in shaping the diverse societies we see today.

Answer 19

onomic Contributions: Jewish migrants played a crucial role in the industrial and economic development of the countries they migrated to. They brought valuable skills, entrepreneurial spirit, and business acumen, which contributed to the growth of various industries. Jewish individuals often established successful businesses and made significant contributions to sectors such as finance, manufacturing, trade, and commerce. Cultural Enrichment: Jewish migrants brought with them their cultural traditions, language, and religious practices, enriching the cultural fabric of their host countries. They contributed to the diversity of society, influencing art, literature, music, and cuisine. Jewish communities often established cultural and religious institutions, contributing to the vibrant multiculturalism of their adopted countries. Innovation and Intellectual Contributions: Jewish migrants made substantial contributions to intellectual and scientific advancements. They excelled in fields such as science, medicine, academia, and the arts, making groundbreaking discoveries and producing influential works. Jewish intellectuals and scholars had a lasting impact on the intellectual landscape of their host countries. Social and Political Activism: Jewish migrants played an active role in social and political movements, advocating for social justice, equality, and human rights. They participated in labor movements, civil rights campaigns, and political activism, striving for societal change and combating discrimination and prejudice. Diaspora Networks and Transnational Connections: Jewish migration during the industrial period led to the formation of extensive diaspora networks. Jewish communities maintained strong ties with each other across national borders, facilitating trade, cultural exchange, and mutual support. These networks helped sustain Jewish identity and fostered connections between individuals and communities. Holocaust and Displacement: It is important to note that the industrial period also witnessed the tragic events of the Holocaust, during which millions of Jews were persecuted, displaced, and killed by Nazi Germany. The impact of the Holocaust on Jewish migration and the Jewish population cannot be overlooked, as it led to mass migration and the reshaping of Jewish communities worldwide. The impacts of Jewish migration during the industrial period varied depending on the specific context of each country and region. While Jewish migrants made significant contributions to their host countries, they also faced challenges such as discrimination, anti-Semitism, and barriers to integration. Nonetheless, their resilience, achievements, and cultural contributions have left a lasting imprint on the societies they became part of.

Answer 20

First World War; Belgians During the First World War, c.60,000 Belgians fleeing the Germans were welcomed in Britain. There was plenty of work available as British men were fighting. However, the government made it clear they could only stay for the duration of the war. When the war ended, they were given a 1-way ticket home. About 90% did this. First World War, Germans There were thousands of Germans living in the country when the First World War broke out. In August 1914, Parliament passed the British Nationality Act & the Status of Aliens Act which made them enemy aliens. This resulted in resentment towards the Germans, fuelled by the media in newspapers. Mobs attacked & looted German shops; German food was taken off menus & anti-German demonstrations broke out. First World War When the war ended in 1918, many British soldiers returned to find their jobs had been taken by migrant workers. This was particularly bad in the docks. Merchant seamen had joined the Royal Navy & lascars had taken their jobs (who worked for less money). This caused riots and tension between British & Indian sailors/dockworkers. Second World War, Poles When the Second World War ended in 1945, Poland was controlled by the Soviet Union so many Poles did not want to return home. In 1947, Parliament passed the Polish Resettlement Act giving Polish servicemen (& their families) the right to remain in Britain. About 120,000 decided to do this. Due to their service in the war, they were generally accepted & Polish communities were established in industrial towns. Second World War, Jews Many Jewish refugees from the Second World War stayed in Britain or moved on to Canada, USA or Israel. Many of their families in Europe had been murdered in the camps. Jewish children had a range of experiences depending on who they were sent to stay with in Britain. Second World War, Germans/Italians During the Second World War, the British government became concerned about any German & Italian people living in Britain & set up tribunals to decide if they posed a threat to Britain or not. As many of the migrants were actually fleeing the Nazis, not many were considered a threat & about 348 out of 35,000 Germans were interned. Many British people were sympathetic to Germans or Italians being interned, especially after a boat carrying 1,150 internees was sunk by a German U-Boat. Hostility after 1950s In the early 1950s migrants had been mainly single people. After this, it became more common for families to migrate together. The media started to consider groups like the Kenyan Asian migrants as an “immigration problem” & in 1967 the NF (National Front) was founded. They wanted to end immigration & expel immigrants from Britain. A popular Tory MP, Enoch Powell, made an explosive speech in 1968 known as the ‘rivers of blood’ speech. Although he was sacked as MP, his speech had a huge impact & did gain a lot of support. A survey found 75% of people in Britain believed there were too many ethnic minority migrants in Britain. Brixton, 1981 On 10th April, 1981 rioting began in Brixton (S London) where c. 25% of the residents were from an ethnic minority. The rioters, who were mostly second-generation young men born to the Windrush Generation, fought the police for 3 days. 300< were injured & about £7.5million of damage was caused. The trigger for the riots was accusations of police brutality but tension had been building for years. Brixton was an area of poor housing, a higher-than average crime rate & high unemployment where about half of the young black men were unemployed. Burnley, 2001 Tensions in Bradford, Oldham & Burnley led to violence. These cities all had large, mostly Asian, migrant communities. Asians in these cities faced economic hardship & racism made worse by the presence of the BNP (British National Party). Outside a nightclub in Burnley on Friday 22nd June, 2001, a fight broke out between rival drug dealers; some white, some Asian. As the fight spread, an Asian taxi driver was attacked with a hammer by white youths. A rumour spread that the driver had been killed so the next night, a group of Asian men attacked the Duke of York pub & its white customers fought back. Rioting continued over the weekend with hundreds involved in firebombing & assaults. This was clearly a racist conflict.

Answer 21

First World War; Belgians During the First World War, c.60,000 Belgians fleeing the Germans were welcomed in Britain. There was plenty of work available as British men were fighting. However, the government made it clear they could only stay for the duration of the war. When the war ended, they were given a 1-way ticket home. About 90% did this. First World War, Germans There were thousands of Germans living in the country when the First World War broke out. In August 1914, Parliament passed the British Nationality Act & the Status of Aliens Act which made them enemy aliens. This resulted in resentment towards the Germans, fuelled by the media in newspapers. Mobs attacked & looted German shops; German food was taken off menus & anti-German demonstrations broke out. First World War When the war ended in 1918, many British soldiers returned to find their jobs had been taken by migrant workers. This was particularly bad in the docks. Merchant seamen had joined the Royal Navy & lascars had taken their jobs (who worked for less money). This caused riots and tension between British & Indian sailors/dockworkers. Second World War, Poles When the Second World War ended in 1945, Poland was controlled by the Soviet Union so many Poles did not want to return home. In 1947, Parliament passed the Polish Resettlement Act giving Polish servicemen (& their families) the right to remain in Britain. About 120,000 decided to do this. Due to their service in the war, they were generally accepted & Polish communities were established in industrial towns. Second World War, Jews Many Jewish refugees from the Second World War stayed in Britain or moved on to Canada, USA or Israel. Many of their families in Europe had been murdered in the camps. Jewish children had a range of experiences depending on who they were sent to stay with in Britain. Second World War, Germans/Italians During the Second World War, the British government became concerned about any German & Italian people living in Britain & set up tribunals to decide if they posed a threat to Britain or not. As many of the migrants were actually fleeing the Nazis, not many were considered a threat & about 348 out of 35,000 Germans were interned. Many British people were sympathetic to Germans or Italians being interned, especially after a boat carrying 1,150 internees was sunk by a German U-Boat. Hostility after 1950s In the early 1950s migrants had been mainly single people. After this, it became more common for families to migrate together. The media started to consider groups like the Kenyan Asian migrants as an “immigration problem” & in 1967 the NF (National Front) was founded. They wanted to end immigration & expel immigrants from Britain. A popular Tory MP, Enoch Powell, made an explosive speech in 1968 known as the ‘rivers of blood’ speech. Although he was sacked as MP, his speech had a huge impact & did gain a lot of support. A survey found 75% of people in Britain believed there were too many ethnic minority migrants in Britain. Brixton, 1981 On 10th April, 1981 rioting began in Brixton (S London) where c. 25% of the residents were from an ethnic minority. The rioters, who were mostly second-generation young men born to the Windrush Generation, fought the police for 3 days. 300< were injured & about £7.5million of damage was caused. The trigger for the riots was accusations of police brutality but tension had been building for years. Brixton was an area of poor housing, a higher-than average crime rate & high unemployment where about half of the young black men were unemployed. Burnley, 2001 Tensions in Bradford, Oldham & Burnley led to violence. These cities all had large, mostly Asian, migrant communities. Asians in these cities faced economic hardship & racism made worse by the presence of the BNP (British National Party). Outside a nightclub in Burnley on Friday 22nd June, 2001, a fight broke out between rival drug dealers; some white, some Asian. As the fight spread, an Asian taxi driver was attacked with a hammer by white youths. A rumour spread that the driver had been killed so the next night, a group of Asian men attacked the Duke of York pub & its white customers fought back. Rioting continued over the weekend with hundreds involved in firebombing & assaults. This was clearly a racist conflict.

Answer 22

Many Migrants in the Modern period played important roles in social change. For example: In 1955, the Bristol Omnibus Company banned black & Asian people from working on the buses. There was no law to stop them doing this. Paul Stephenson organised a Boycott of the buses which became international news. In 1963, the company reversed their decision. Also see; Dr Harold Moody, Jayaben Desai, Doreen Lawrence & Malala Yousafzai. Show Racism the Red Card is an anti-racism education charity. Shaka Hislop donated money to set up the company. They use football players to run educational workshops for young people & adults in Britain. Black Lives Matter is a movement that originated in the US in 2013 but came to international attention when George Floyd was murdered by a police officer in 2020. In Britain, the movement led demonstrations in major cities against the legacy of the Empire & slave trade. Migrants and the children of migrants have become important British politicians. For example, Rishi Sunak's parents were born in Southeast Africa, Sadiq Khan's parents moved from Pakistan as was Humza Yousaf's father. Migrants in this period have become role-models in every walk of life. E.g. Hans Kreb a biochemist migrated when Nazis prevented Jews from working. In 1953, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology. Mo Farah was born in Somalia but moved to England to escape war. He's pretty decent at running. Britain's public services have always relied on migrant workers. Irish nurses had worked in Britain for years but when the NHS was established in 1948, more migrated from Ireland & further afield. Many members of the Windrush generation worked on public transport. Migrants have had a positive impact on setting up businesses & creating jobs. Tilda Rice, for example, is a successful business established in Britain by migrants. The Thakar family were Ugandan -Asians who came to Britain in the 1970s. Although starting in the period before, the modern period continued to see a change as migrants built more places of worship. The Guru Nanak Gurdwara Sikh temple in Birmingham is the biggest gurdwara in Europe. The 20th century saw a boom in shops & restaurants selling Asia, Caribbean, Eastern European produce & dishes. They are a common site Many migrants have made huge impacts in the worlds or writing, acting, art & music. For example; Idris Elba's parents migrated from Sierra Leone & Ghana. He has starred in many popular television shows. Michael Omari's mother is from Ghana. He was the first Black British Artist to headline Glastonbury. Immigration has changed was people eat & drink in Britain. Chinese, Indian, Turkish restaurants are found in pretty much every high-street in every UK town and city. Festivals started by migrants are now deeply embedded in British culture. Diwali is celebrated in schools across the country, the Chinese New Year sees celebrations in many major cities and the Notting Hill Carnival is one of London's highest-profile events where c.1 million people attend each year.

Answer 23

Once, a poor area of the city, Notting Hill attracted vast numbers of migrants from the Caribbean who arrived after the Second World War with the help of the British Nationality Act.

Answer 24

Slum Housing Before the Second World War, many houses in Notting Hill had been declared unfit to live in. However, after German bombs destroyed many London buildings, people had to continue living there in the 1950s in overcrowded conditions (HMOs). Because these houses were cheap to rent, poorer members of the Caribbean Community moved to Notting Hill. Slum Landlords Many people took advantage of the desperation of the Caribbean Community in Notting Hill by not repairing the properties, overcharging tenants & in some cases renting out individual beds. Peter Rachmann was one such landlord who exploited legal loopholes to replace his white tenants with Caribbean migrants who had fewer rights. He used threats & violence to control his “empire”. Rachmanism. Bruce Kenrick & the Notting Hill Housing Trust In the early 1960s a former Second World War medic came to live in Notting Hill. He had become a Christian Minister & was shocked at the appalling living conditions. He established the NHHT which was a charity housing association with the aim of raising money through donations to do the houses up & rent them at reasonable prices. In the first year, they bought 5 houses housing 50 people, by 1975 they owned 1,000 & by the early 1980s were renovating c.800 homes a year. Pardner Schemes Some Caribbean migrants took their own positive steps to tackle the housing issues they faced. This system was common in Caribbean where people would buy houses together. A group of migrants would put their savings together to put down a deposit on a house. This helped to ease the crises. Caribbean Migrants in Notting Hill & the Windrush Many Caribbean migrants of the Windrush Generation were attracted to Notting Hill. This was due to the fact the houses were so run down they were cheap to rent. Also, landlords such as Peter Rachmann was willing to rent to the black community whereas landlords in other areas weren’t. As black communities started to grow, this in turn encouraged more black migrants to live in Notting Hill.

Answer 25

Caribbean Culture in Notting Hill Portobello Road Market Portobello Road runs almost the length of Notting Hill & in the late 1800s had developed into a market mostly selling food to local residents. As more migrants moved to London, the market evolved to reflect the people living there. After the Second World War, the market gained a reputation for selling bric-a-brac (usually second hand) & is now a very popular tourist destination with a range of food, clothing and general goods stalls. Due to the Colour Bar, many cafes, shops, restaurants & bars refused to accept Black people; Slowly, enterprising businessmen opened up businesses to cater to the local Black community. Frank Crichlow opened The Rio which became a meeting place for the Black community. There was also the Calypso Club & Fiesta One which allowed people to socialise until the early hours. A common feature of these places was the shebeen; this was a bar (in a front room or basement) where alcohol was illegally served. They offered cheap entertainment, played loud music & were free from racism found in the white-owned establishments. All Saints Road All Saints Road was at the heart of Notting Hill’s Black community. After The Rio was closed in the late 1960s, Frank Crichlow opened a new restaurant called The Mangrove (1968). He sponsored the Mangrove steel band, giving young Black people the opportunity to learnt an instrument. The road also contained barber shops, coffee bars, fruit stalls & places to buy music & clothes. It became very fashionable attracting Bob Marley, Van Morrison, Jimi Hendrix & the Beatles. The road also had a reputation for illegal shebeens & illegal drugs.

Answer 26

The Notting Hill Riots Notting Hill was the destination for many migrants from the Caribbean. Many of the white working-class in the area believed that the houses being rented by black migrants should be theirs. Also, because the colour bar was forcing members of the black community to take low paid manual work, they were competing with the white-working class for work. With the rise of the Teddy Boys & the White Defence League, tension rose & rose with many white residents in the area believing they were fighting to “Keep Britain White”. During the summer of 1958, gangs of Teddy Boys started to attack the homes & businesses of Black residents with petrol bombs & bricks with individuals being harassed on the streets. On 24th August, a gang of white youths assaulted 5 Black men with metal bars. This continued for days where groups of white youths continued to target Caribbean cares, shops & homes whilst the Black community took to the streets to defend themselves. 140+ (mostly white) people were arrested during the course of the riots Caribbean community leaders had told local police of their concerns in the build up to the riots yet no action was taken. The police were accused of reacting too slowly when the riots began & not doing enough to stop them. The riots were followed by a worsening relationship between the Caribbean community and the police & there were more riots in 1976.

Answer 27

Kelso Cochrane was murdered on 17th May 1959. He was attacked by 2 white youths near Portobello Road in Notting Hill. 2 men were arrested but released with the Police claiming that the murder was a robbery gone wrong. No-one has been convicted of the murder. Many people were shocked by the actions of the Police and the IFFC were set up. They helped arrange Cochrane’s funeral as well as putting pressure on the Government to remove racist Police Officers and get more police in Notting Hill. Politician’s like Oswald Mosley tried to take advantage of the racial tension in Notting Hill. Mosley claimed that the Black communities of West London were responsible behind a lot of crime and he tried to end “coloured migration”.

Answer 28

In August 1958 the Notting Hill Riots occurred. Jones decided to organise a Caribbean carnival to try to pull the community together & celebrate aspects of African-Caribbean culture with a wider audience. The first carnival was held indoors & featured jazz musicians, dancers, singers, steel bands & a beauty contest Some of the money raised was used to help pay the fines of both Black & white men involved in the riots. It soon became an annual event & is seen as the forerunner to the Notting Hill Carnival

Answer 29

In 1958, Claudia Jones established the first major Black weekly newspaper called the West Indian Gazette in the hope it would help her in the fight for equality. The newspaper reached c.15,000 readers and performed a number of functions… It featured stories about what was happening in the Caribbean as well as in the UK It reviewed the work of Black actors, artists, sculptors and writers (this was rare in other newspapers) Provided information about jobs, housing & local events

Answer 30

In March 1968, Frank Crichlow opened the Mangrove restaurant on All Saints Road in Notting Hill. By 1970, it had become the centre of the Black community & was a key social spot in the area. The police regularly raided the Mangrove to search for drugs but none were never found. Many believed these raids were because there was resentment at Frank Crichlow being a successful Black businessman. Due to these regular raids & to resist this unfair harassment, the BBP organised a demonstration which took place on 9 August 1970. 150 took part in this demonstration accompanied by 200 police. During the demonstration, there were some violent clashes & the police made nine arrests including Frank Crichlow, Darcus Howe, Altheia Jones-LeCointe. They were arrested on charges of inciting a riot which carries a long prison sentence. They became known as the ‘Mangrove Nine’. The ‘Mangrove Nine’ stook trial at the Old Bailey where the defendants demanded an all-Black jury because British law states that people should be tried by their peers. The demand was rejected. The Jury had 2 (out of 12) Black members. 2 of the nine defendants decided to defend themselves & did a brilliant job of demonstrating that the police version of events was false or exaggerated. The trial really showed examples of police brutality & racism. The Jury acquitted all nine defendants of the most serious charges & the judge publicly acknowledged that the police behaviour had been motivated by racial hatred. The verdict was seen as an inspirational victory for the Black community & is today viewed as a landmark moment in the story of Black British civil rights.

Answer 31

During the reign of King Henry VIII, tensions arose between the native Londoners and foreign-born immigrants, particularly those of Flemish and French origin. These tensions were fueled by economic competition, as immigrants were seen as taking away job opportunities from locals. On May 1, 1517, known as May Day, an annual celebration in England, a street brawl broke out between apprentices and foreign-born workers in the City of London. The riot quickly escalated, with a large mob of English apprentices and laborers attacking foreign-owned businesses and homes, particularly those belonging to immigrants from Flanders. The riot continued for several days, resulting in widespread violence, destruction, and looting. The authorities struggled to control the situation and eventually had to call in the military to restore order. Numerous arrests were made, and several people were executed for their involvement in the violence. The event became known as "Evil May Day" due to the negative actions and consequences associated with it. The riot reflected the growing anti-immigrant sentiment and economic anxieties prevalent in London at the time. It highlighted the tensions between native Londoners and immigrant communities, particularly during periods of economic hardship. The incident had long-lasting implications for immigrant communities in London. It led to stricter regulations on immigration and increased discrimination against foreigners. The event serves as a historical reminder of the complexities and challenges surrounding immigration, xenophobia, and social tensions in urban settings during the Early Modern period.