migration

Question 1

Question/Prompt

Answer 1

Answer

Question 2

What is the Replacement Fertility Rate (RFR)?

Answer 2

The fertility rate needed to maintain a stable population without migration (~2.1 in developed countries, ~2.5-3.3 in developing countries).

Question 3

Formula for Doubling Time

Answer 3

Doubling Time = 70 / Growth Rate (%)

Question 4

What is the Hidden Momentum of Population Growth?

Answer 4

The tendency for population to keep growing after birth rates decline due to a large base of young people reaching reproductive age.

Question 5

Stages of the Demographic Transition Model

Answer 5

Stage 1: High birth & death rates → slow growth.
Stage 2: High birth, falling death rates → rapid growth.
Stage 3: Declining birth, low death rates → slowing growth.
Stage 4: Low birth & death rates → near-zero growth.

Question 6

Malthusian Population Trap

Answer 6

Theory that population grows exponentially while food supply grows linearly, leading to starvation & crisis.

Question 7

Criticism of Malthusian Theory

Answer 7

Fails to account for technological advancements, improved food production, and better healthcare.

Question 8

Definition of Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

Answer 8

The number of live births per 1,000 people per year.

Question 9

Definition of Crude Death Rate (CDR)

Answer 9

The number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.

Question 10

What is Total Fertility Rate (TFR)?

Answer 10

The average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime under current birth rates.

Question 11

What happens when fertility is below Replacement Level?

Answer 11

Population declines, leading to aging population, labor shortages, and economic stagnation (e.g., Japan, South Korea, Italy).

Question 12

What is Urbanization?

Answer 12

The shift of population from rural to urban areas, often due to industrialization and economic opportunities.

Question 13

What was China’s One-Child Policy?

Answer 13

A strict population control measure (1979-2015) that reduced birth rates but led to an aging population and gender imbalance.

Question 14

Key negative effects of high fertility

Answer 14

• Slower economic growth
• More poverty & inequality
• Strain on education & healthcare
• Environmental degradation
• Increased food shortages

Question 15

Key positive effects of high fertility

Answer 15

• Larger workforce
• More economic activity
• Potential for innovation & creativity

Question 16

What does the Neo-Marxist view say about population growth?

Answer 16

It argues that developed countries use population control to maintain global economic dominance.

Question 17

What are the main policy responses to high fertility in developing countries?

Answer 17

• Education (especially for women)
• Improved healthcare
• Family planning programs
• Expanding economic opportunities for women

Question 18

What policies help countries facing population decline?

Answer 18

• Immigration programs
• Labor force retraining
• Pro-natal incentives (subsidies for families to have more children)

Question 19

What is the Population-Poverty Cycle?

Answer 19

The idea that high fertility leads to poverty, which in turn encourages high fertility, creating a self-reinforcing cycle.

Question 20

Exam Question: What are the major demographic trends projected for 2050 & 2100?

Answer 20

• 2050: ~9.8 billion people, mostly in developing countries.
• 2100: ~11.2 billion people, with Africa contributing most of the growth.

Question 21

Why does the Demographic Transition Model matter?

Answer 21

It explains how societies evolve from high to low birth/death rates and why developing countries experience rapid population growth.

Question 22

How does the Hidden Momentum of Population Growth affect future trends?

Answer 22

Even if fertility rates decline today, populations will continue to grow for decades due to a large number of young people entering reproductive age.

Question 23

Why do developing countries have higher fertility rates?

Answer 23

• Economic security (children as labor)
• Lack of contraception access
• Cultural/religious factors
• High infant mortality rates

Question 24

How does women’s education affect fertility rates?

Answer 24

Higher education → Delayed marriage & childbirth, better career opportunities, increased use of contraception → Lower fertility.

Question 25

How does high fertility impact economic development?

Answer 25

Short-term: More labor force growth. Long-term: Can strain resources, slow economic progress, and increase poverty if unchecked.

Question 26

What happens when a country’s population ages?

Answer 26

- Fewer working-age people → Labor shortages - Higher healthcare & pension costs - Slower economic growth

Question 27

What are the major criticisms of China’s One-Child Policy?

Answer 27

- Created an aging population - Gender imbalance (preference for male children) - Workforce shrinkage impacting economic growth

Question 28

How does migration affect population growth trends?

Answer 28

- Can help offset population decline in aging societies. - Can strain urban infrastructure in fast-growing countries.

Question 29

What are the environmental impacts of rapid population growth?

Answer 29

- Deforestation - Increased water & food demand - Higher carbon emissions - Loss of biodiversity

Question 30

Why does the relationship between population growth & economic development depend on context?

Answer 30

In developed countries, slower growth can cause labor shortages. In developing nations, rapid growth can strain resources.

Question 31

What is a real-world example of a country struggling with high fertility rates?

Answer 31

Nigeria: High fertility → Young population, growing economy, but rising unemployment and infrastructure pressure.

Question 32

What is a real-world example of a country struggling with low fertility rates?

Answer 32

Japan: Aging population → Labor shortages, pension system strain, slow economic growth.

Question 33

Why does urbanization affect fertility rates?

Answer 33

In cities, costs of raising children are higher, women have more career opportunities, and access to contraception is better → Lower fertility.

Question 34

How do pro-natalist policies work?

Answer 34

Governments provide financial incentives (subsidies, tax breaks, childcare benefits) to encourage families to have more children.

Question 35

How does access to healthcare impact fertility?

Answer 35

Better healthcare lowers infant mortality, reducing the need for families to have many children as 'insurance' for survival.

Question 36

How does poverty reinforce high fertility?

Answer 36

Poor families may rely on children for labor or old-age support, leading to more births despite financial hardship.

Question 37

How do education and family planning work together to lower fertility?

Answer 37

Educated women have better knowledge of contraception and economic opportunities, leading to smaller, planned families.

Question 38

Exam Question: What are the long-term economic risks of an aging population?

Answer 38

- Shrinking labor force - Higher healthcare & pension costs - Economic stagnation due to lower productivity

Question 39

Exam Question: Why does Sub-Saharan Africa have high fertility rates despite economic development?

Answer 39

- Cultural norms favor large families - Limited access to contraception - High infant mortality still a factor

Question 40

Exam Question: What are the pros and cons of immigration as a solution to population decline?

Answer 40

Pros: Boosts labor force, supports economic growth, fills skill gaps. Cons: Can strain housing, healthcare, and create social tensions.

Question 41

Define Urbanisation.

Answer 41

Urbanisation is the population shift from rural to urban areas, typically as economies develop.

Question 42

Formula: Expected Urban Income (Harris-Todaro)

Answer 42

(Probability of Formal Job × Urban Wage) + (Probability of Informal Job × Informal Wage)

Question 43

Define Agglomeration Economies.

Answer 43

Cost advantages to producers/consumers from businesses locating close together (in cities).

Question 44

What is a Megacity?

Answer 44

A city with a population of 10 million or more people.

Question 45

Key equation of Harris-Todaro Model (Basic).

Answer 45

WA = (LM / LUS) × WM (WA: Rural wage, LM: Urban formal jobs, LUS: Total urban labour, WM: Urban formal wage)

Question 46

Define Informal Sector.

Answer 46

Unregulated economic activities with no formal contracts, often small, labour-intensive enterprises.

Question 47

What are Push factors in migration?

Answer 47

Factors pushing people away from rural areas: poverty, unemployment, environmental degradation.

Question 48

What are Agglomeration Economies?

Answer 48

Cost advantages arising from geographic concentration of industries and people.

Question 49

List factors causing 'Urban Giantism'.

Answer 49

Import substitution, political incentives ('bread and circuses'), hub-and-spoke transport systems, capital-city dominance.

Question 50

Urban informal sector characteristics?

Answer 50

Low-skilled, low wages, self-employment, no job security or benefits.

Question 51

Why does urbanisation correlate strongly with economic development? (Exam Question)

Answer 51

Cities concentrate resources, knowledge, and skilled labour, boosting efficiency (agglomeration economies), which accelerates economic growth and development. Example: Silicon Valley.

Question 52

Explain the difference between Urbanisation and Localisation Economies.

Answer 52

Urbanisation economies are general agglomeration benefits from overall urban growth (e.g., better infrastructure). Localisation economies benefit specific sectors concentrated in one area (e.g., financial industry in New York).

Question 53

Why can rapid urbanisation cause congestion?

Answer 53

Rapid migration leads to overcrowding, putting stress on infrastructure (housing, transport), increasing costs, and lowering quality of life. Real-world example: Traffic congestion in Lagos, Nigeria.

Question 54

Outline the core idea of the Harris-Todaro migration model.

Answer 54

People migrate based on expected, not actual, wages. If urban expected income (wage times employment probability) exceeds rural income, migration occurs, even risking urban unemployment.

Question 55

What is the Lewis Model’s primary assumption? (Exam Question)

Answer 55

Rural areas have surplus labour ('disguised unemployment'), meaning extra workers don’t significantly increase rural production; thus, moving them to urban industries won't reduce rural output.

Question 56

Explain 'First-City Bias'.

Answer 56

Governments disproportionately invest in the largest city (usually capital), attracting migration and resources, creating inefficiencies, neglecting secondary cities, and increasing inequality.

Question 57

Why do megacities in developing countries face higher congestion?

Answer 57

They grow faster than infrastructure development, leading to overcrowding, high commuting costs, poor sanitation, and increased health risks.

Question 58

What percentage of urban residents globally live in slums? (Hard Fact)

Answer 58

About 30% of urban residents in developing countries live in slums (~1 billion people).

Question 59

What defines a 'Consumption City'?

Answer 59

A city whose growth is driven primarily by consumption rather than productive activities, often leading to increased poverty and slum settlements.

Question 60

Conceptual Exam Question: How does rapid urbanisation both help and harm economic development?

Answer 60

Urbanisation promotes productivity, innovation, and economic growth (agglomeration). However, excessive urbanisation leads to overcrowding, slums, pollution, and social strain (negative externalities).

Question 61

Apply the Harris-Todaro Model: A rural worker earns $2/day, urban formal wage is $5/day with 40% employment probability, or informal sector wage of $0.50/day. Should they migrate?

Answer 61

Calculate expected urban income: (0.5×3)+(0.5×0.25)=1.625; since 1.625 > 1.50, migration occurs. (Application Challenge: Consider real-world implications in a country like India.)

Question 62

Explain urban bias using real-world analogy.

Answer 62

Urban bias is like watering one plant excessively while ignoring others: investments and resources focus heavily on one big city (capital city), stunting growth of smaller cities and rural areas. (E.g., Mexico City vs. smaller Mexican cities.)

Question 63

Why might some countries experience 'urbanisation without growth'?

Answer 63

When cities expand without parallel industrial or employment opportunities, resulting in consumption-driven urban areas (consumption cities), leading to slums, poverty, and limited economic advancement.

Question 64

Real-world scenario: Describe how improving rural infrastructure affects rural-urban migration.

Answer 64

Enhancing rural infrastructure (e.g., internet, electricity, roads) creates local jobs, reducing migration pressures by allowing residents to work where they live, maintaining community stability, and preserving local cultures. (Example: Teleworking hubs in rural Canada.)

Question 65

Why might higher urban wages not eliminate urban unemployment in developing countries?

Answer 65

Higher wages attract more rural migrants, causing overcrowding in job markets and cities, leading to greater unemployment (illustrated by Todaro’s equilibrium migration model).

Question 66

Explain clearly the meaning of disguised unemployment (Lewis model).

Answer 66

Disguised unemployment occurs when extra workers in rural agriculture produce no additional output; removing them doesn’t lower production. (Real-world: Family farming where productivity per person is very low.)

Question 67

Apply Harris-Todaro Model: How would increasing urban minimum wages impact rural-urban migration?

Answer 67

Higher urban wages make urban areas more attractive, raising migration rates, worsening urban unemployment, and increasing pressure on urban infrastructure. (Application Challenge: Think Mexico City.)

Question 68

Describe the impact of informal sectors on urban economies.

Answer 68

Informal sectors provide essential livelihoods and employment for urban poor, but their low productivity and wages limit overall economic growth. Improving this sector enhances incomes and stability. (Application: Street vendors in Nairobi.)

Question 69

Discuss why reducing urban bias is critical for sustainable development.

Answer 69

Reducing urban bias balances economic growth, reducing excessive urbanisation pressure, enhancing rural livelihoods, and decreasing urban unemployment and inequality. (Application: Balanced growth policies in Rwanda.)