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Animal Nutrition- minerals > minerals > Flashcards

minerals Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two mineral classes?

A

Macro-minerals

Micro-minerals

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2
Q

what percent in diet is a macro-mineral?

A

> 0.01% (100mg/kg) in diet

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3
Q

what percent in diet is a micro-mineral?

A

< 0.01% (100mg/kg) in diet

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4
Q

Name the seven Macro-minerals

A 
Calcium
Phosphorus
Sodium
Chlorine
Potassium
Magnesium
Sulfur
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5
Q

What are the 14 micro-minerals?

A 
Iron                      Manganese
Copper                 Selenium
Molybdenum         Fluorine
Iodine                   Silicon
Cobalt                   Chromium
Zinc                      vanadium
nickel                    arsenic
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6
Q

What is the elemental compositions of most species in regards to one another? What is the exception and why?

A

Most species have a relatively uniform elemental composition, except in young animals, which have lower Ca and P.

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7
Q

Dietary requirement is highly correlated with what?

A

body level

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8
Q

Concentration in animal tissues of Calcium

A

15 g/kg BW

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9
Q

Concentration in animal tissues of phosphorus

A

10 g/kg BW

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10
Q

Concentration in animal tissues of potassium

A

2 g/kg BW

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11
Q

Concentration in animal tissues of sodium

A

1.6 g/kg BW

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12
Q

Concentration in animal tissues of chlorine

A

1.1 g/kg BW

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13
Q

Concentration in animal tissues of sulfur

A

1.5 g/kg BW

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14
Q

Concentration in animal tissues of magnesium

A

0.4 g/kg BW

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15
Q

What are the structural functions of minerals?

A

components of bone and tissues, eg. Ca, P, and S

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16
Q

what are the electrochemical functions of minerals?

A

acid-base balance, osmotic control, H2O balance, eg. K, Na, and Cl

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17
Q

What are the catalytic functions of minerals?

A

component of hormones and enzymes, eg. S, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, I

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18
Q

Which mineral is the most abundant mineral element in the body?

A

Calcium

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19
Q

What percent of body weight is calcium in humans and animals?

A

1-2% of body weight

avg. human is 1.2 kg of Ca (90kg man)
avg. dairy cow is 9.4 kg Ca (600 kg cow)

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20
Q

Dietary sources of calcium for humans

A

milk and dairy products (75% of total)

legume seeds

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21
Q

good dietary sources of calcium in animals

A
  • Legume roughage - 1-2% of DM
  • animal by-products (meat by-products): 5-12% of DM
  • fish meal: 3-8% DM
  • ground limestone and dicalcium phosphate (dairy cows and laying hen diets) 30-40% of DiCal-P
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22
Q

Poor dietary sources of calcium in animals

A

cereal grains and roots - < 0.2% of DM

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23
Q

Functions of Calcium

A

Bone and teeth: 46% minerals by weight

egg shells: almost pure CaCO3
Muscle contraction and nerve impulses
Acid-base balance: cation-anion balance of diets
blood clotting mechanism

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24
Q

What mineral salts are in bones/teeth?

A

hydroxyapatite crystals: 36% Ca, 18% P, and 1% Mg

3 Cac (PO4)2 x Ca(OH)2
Ca:P ratio = 1.3 to 2:1
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25
Q

what is the Body distribution of Calcium

A

99% in bone and teeth

1% in blood, body fluids, and within cells

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26
Q

what is the Blood distribution of calcium

A

Plasma Ca(2+) levels

mammals: 2.25-2.75 mM (90-110 mg/liter)
poultry: 7.5 - 10 mM (300-400 mg/liter)
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27
Q

Where is calcium absorbed?

A

in the duodenum and jejunum

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28
Q

how is calcium excreted?

A

urine (20-30%)
feces (70-80%)
Perspiration (minor)

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29
Q

what ion is necessary at all steps in Fibrin formation?

A

Calcium (2+)

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30
Q

What are the ten factors influencing calcium absorption?

A
  1. the sources of calcium
  2. dietary acidity
  3. sugars
  4. vitamins
  5. estrogen
  6. age
  7. excess phosphorus
  8. phytate
  9. Diet Fat content
  10. Oxalates
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31
Q

How do the sources of calcium affect absorption?

A

Cereals: low in Ca, plus contain phylates which chelate Ca and reduces absorption in monogastrics

Bone meal: Ca 100% available

Alfalfa: Ca low in availability (16-88%)

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32
Q

How does diet acidity affect calcium absorption?

A

increases absorption by increasing solubility of Ca-chelates

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33
Q

How do sugars affect Ca absorption?

A

Lactose- Increases Ca passive absorption in suckling animals

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34
Q

How do vitamins affect Ca absorption?

A

increase Ca absorption via Calbindin

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35
Q

How does estrogen affect Ca absorption

A

increases it

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36
Q

Post-menapausal women are at risk for what disease and why?

A

at risk for osteoperosis

have low estrogen levels

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37
Q

How does age affect Ca absorption?

A

decreases with age

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38
Q

how does excess phosphorus affect Ca absorption?

A

causes it to decrease

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39
Q

How do phytates affect Ca absorption?

A

chelates and binds Ca (and P)

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40
Q

How do oxalates affect Ca absorption?

A

forms Ca-Oxalate (insoluble); reduces absorption

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41
Q

How does diet fat content affect Ca absorption?

A

excess dietary fat reduces Ca absorption due to fatty acid Ca-soap formations

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42
Q

What is phytic acid?

A

the plants’ storage form of phosphorus

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43
Q

where does chelation occur? On what?

A

Occurs in plants and in digestive tract

chelates all cations (Mg, Zn, Cu, Ca, Mn, Fe, and K)

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44
Q

High Ca-Phytate prevents release of what by What?

A

Phosphorus by animal phytases

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45
Q

If there is low Ca, what gland is activated?

A

parathyroid gland

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46
Q

What hormone does the parathyroid gland release?

A

PTH

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47
Q

what does PTH do?

A
  • Induces Kidney
    • 1-alpha hydroxylase
    • Ca reabsorption at kidney
    • Phosphate exretion at kidney
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48
Q

Vitamin D is released in what form?

A

1, 25 (OH)2D

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49
Q

What does 1, 25(OH)2D do?

A
  • promotes Ca reabsorption at kidney
  • Promotes Ca resorption from bone
  • promotes Ca and PO4 absorption from the intestinal tract
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50
Q

If there is high Ca, what gland is activated?

A

Thyroid gland

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51
Q

what does the thyroid gland release?

A

calcitonin

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52
Q

what does calcitonin do?

A

suppresses PTH release and action

this suppresses 1, 25 (OH)2D

inhibits Ca reabsorption at kidney

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53
Q

what does calcitonin do?

A

suppresses resorption of bone

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54
Q

What are the net effects of Calcium regulation?

A
  1. maintain normal plasma Calcium concentration

2. keep Ca:P ratio in plasma constant

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55
Q

How much calcium does a human need? (old and avg.)

A

old: 1200mg/day
avg: 800 mg/day

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56
Q

Animal calcium daily intake?

A 
chick- 1% (rapid bone growth)
laying hen- 3.5% (due to egg shell formation)
swine- 0.8%
calves, lambs, foals- 0.5%
dairy cow- 0.4%
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57
Q

When does Rickets occur?

A

Mostly in young growing animals

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58
Q

What causes Rickets?

A
  • deficiency of Ca, P, or Vit D (or all)
  • Imbalanced dietary Ca:P outside of the 2.5:1 ratio
  • Parathyroid hypertrophy: increases PTH (i.e. enlarged gland)
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59
Q

What is the mechanism of Rickets?

A

Continued growth of the collagen and organic matrix BUT no or insufficient mineralization (hydroxyapatite crystals and ossification) for support

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60
Q

What is the result of having Rickets?

A
  • soft, light bone

- muscles continue to grow, increasing the weight on soft bone and causing the bone to bend

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61
Q

What is the occurrence of Osteomalacia?

A

-Occurs in adult animals (adult counterpart to Rickets)

  • occurs in animals on a Ca-deficient diet, fail to replace Ca in the bone after resorption process.
  • also occurs with Phosphorus and/or Vit D deficiency
62
Q

What is the result of Osteomalacia

A

brittle, demineralized bones that are easily broken

63
Q

Milk fever (hypocalcemia) occurrence

A

Occurs within 72 hrs after calving

-prevalent in high producing cows: cannot meet milk secretion demands

64
Q

What are the symptoms of milk fever?

A
  • low heart rate due to low calcium levels preventing adequate heart impulses
  • low body temperature (low blood circulation)
  • tetany (muscle tremors)
  • collapse
  • possible coma and death
65
Q

What are the clinical signs of Milk Fever

A

Blood Calcium half of normal (5-6 mg/mL)

66
Q

What is the metabolic basis of milk fever?

A

Bone Ca release is too inadequate to meet Ca Demands for milk production

67
Q

what can be done to treat milk fever?

A

I.V. Injection of Ca-salts, such as CaCl2, Ca-lactate, and Ca-Gluconate

68
Q

What steps can be taken to prevent Milk fever?

A
  • change form high Ca to low Ca diet 14 days before calving- stimulates mobilization
  • high dose Vitamin D injection 5 days before calving; will increase calcium absorption
69
Q

When/ or in whom does Osteoporosis occur?

A

human females over 50 yrs or near menopause

70
Q

what causes osteoporosis?

A

age, gender (female), low Ca and Vit D intake, low physical activity

71
Q

What are the results of osteoporosis?

A

Reduced height and increased susceptibility to bone fractures

72
Q

what happens metabolically in regards to osteoporosis?

A

decreased mineralization of organic matrix of bone leads to decreased bone mass

73
Q

what can be done to prevent osteoporosis?

A
  • increase Ca intake: halts progression but does not reverse damage
  • mineralization can be replenished, but organic matrix cannot (permanent damage)
74
Q

Why is phosphorus important?

A

it performs 14 vital functions, which is more than any other mineral

75
Q

Does free phosphorus exist? how does it?

A

No it does not. It is always chelated or bound form as a phosphate

76
Q

How do ruminants get phosphorus?

A

microbial phytases break down phytic acid in cereal grains to release P for absorption in small intestines

1 phytic acid –> 6( PO3-) + sugar

77
Q

Functions of phosphorus

A
  1. Bone and teeth formation
  2. high energy bonds (ATP->ADP, creatine-P-> creatine)
  3. lipid transport (phospholipids); P is in all cells!
  4. carbohydrate, fat and amino acid metabolism
  5. nucleic acid synthesis (DNA, RNA)
  6. Enzyme system requirements
  7. Milk secretion
  8. Osmotic and acid-base balance (phosphate buffer system
78
Q

Body distribution of Phosphorus

A
  • 85% in bone and teeth
  • 14% in soft tissue
  • 1% in blood (organic and inorganic complexes): 60-90 mg PO4(3-)/L
79
Q

absorption sites of phosphorus

A

duodenum and jejunum of the small intestine

–Most P incorporated into phospholipids in intestinal cells

80
Q

Excretion of Phosphorus

A

Feces:
-minor in carnivores (most P in diet is digested)

  • 50% in humans pigs and poultry (due to indigestible form of P)
  • herbivores- major route due to saliva/gut excretions

Urine:
major route in carnivores (acid urine and role of PO4(2-) buffer system)

81
Q

how do excess levels of other minerals influence P absorption?

A

Cations tie up PO4(2-) and decrease absorption

diet acidity (lower pH) helps dissolve precipitates

82
Q

How does the form of phosphate influence P absorption?

A
  • Dicalcium phosphate- 85% available (more soluble)
  • Calcium phosphate - 45% available (less soluble)
  • Phytate-P (low and variable)
83
Q

How does phytic acid influence P absorption?

A

P is unavailable unless microbial or plant phytases are present to break down phytic acid

84
Q

What are sources of phytases?

A
  • Plants mostly (eg. high in wheat)
  • ruminal and intestinal bacteria
  • animal phytase: very low levels of enzyme in intestine
85
Q

How do monogastrics get P from Phytate complex

A

negligible intestinal phytase activity, some intestinal bacterial phytase, BUT aides little in release P

86
Q

How do ruminants get P from phytate complex

A

rumen microbial phytases release P from phytate complex in rumen

87
Q

What are some plant sources of Phytate-P?

A

Corn, Oats, Wheat, Barley, Rice, Soybeans

88
Q

How does Vitamin D affect intestinal absorption of PO4(-)

A
  • increases intestinal absorption of PO4(-)

- increases reabsorption of PO4(-) in kidney tubules

89
Q

How does PTH affect PO4(-) absorption in intestine?

A

increases urinary PO4(-) excretion in kidney tubules

90
Q

Dietary Requirements of P

A

0.3-1% of diet (Ca:P ratio is very important)

91
Q

What are the effects of P deficiency?

A
  • Rickets (same symptoms as Ca)
  • osteomalacia (same symptoms as Ca)
  • abnormal growth and bone structure
  • loss of appetite- anorexia
  • pica - abnormal eating and chewing behavior
  • low blood P-> hypophosphotemia
92
Q

excess phosphorus can cause what?

A
  • hypterparathyroidism
  • increased PTH, which leads to increased Phosphate excretion
  • failure of bone calcification
93
Q

High P and mg leads to what

A

mineral deposits in bladder; urolithiasis

94
Q

What does PTH do?

A
  1. increases Ca and P resorption from bone
  2. increases P excretion into urine
  3. Increases synthesis of active form of Vitamin D
  4. Increases Ca absorption from GI tract
  5. Increases Ca resorption from kidney

Result: elevated blood Ca level to normal

95
Q

High blood Ca leads to what

A

stimulation and release of calcitonin from thyroid gland

96
Q

what does calcitonin do?

A

reverses PTH functions

97
Q

What are the key regulators in Ca Homeostasis?

A

Vitamin D

  • increases bone resorption
  • increases intestinal Ca absorption

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

  • increases bone resorption
  • increases Ca re-absorption in kidney

Calcitonin
-decreases bone resorption

98
Q

What do sodium, potassium and chloride function as?

A

electrolytes

99
Q

what do the electrolytes maintain in the body?

A
  1. osmotic pressure in tissues: maintains normal shape of cells via ion pumps (eg. Na/K-ATPase)
  2. Membrane potential: signal transduction through the membranes, eg. neurons and axons
  3. acid-base balance: pH maintenance in blood and tissues
100
Q

What is the optimum dietary electrolyte balance?

A

250 milli-equilvalents/kg diet

101
Q

Ion imbalance affects metabolism of what?

A
  1. energy
  2. amino acids
  3. vitamin D synthesis
  4. calcium absorption
  5. kidney function
102
Q

Diet and body ion balance influences what?

A
  1. growth
  2. efficiency
  3. Appetite
  4. eggshell formation
  5. milk fever
103
Q

Sodium is the _____ most abundant mineral in the world.

A

6th

104
Q

what are the sources of sodium?

A

good sources: animal tissues

poor sources: vegetables, cereals, forages

105
Q

Body content of sodium in body

A

0.1-0.2%; 120-140 g Na in 70 kg man.

106
Q

Sodium is a major _____ in ______

A

cation in extracellular fluid

107
Q

Sodium functions

A
  1. acid/base balance
  2. Na+/K+-ATPase pump
    • accounts for 20-40% of resting energy
      requirements
  3. Membrane permeability: (transport and osmotic
    regulation (normal H2O distribution
  4. Normal kidney function
108
Q

Name the seven sodium deficiencies. What do they result in?

A
  1. inanition (low vitality or exhausted
  2. adrenal hypertrophy: enlarged to compensate for low Na+
  3. Depraved appetite (cannibalism- especially birds)
  4. water intoxication (note: sodium excess leads to fluid retention)
  5. Renal failure
  6. decreased cardiac output and increased hematocrit (low plasma volume)
  7. low arterial pressure

These symptoms result in extreme weight loss and high mortality

109
Q

generally, plants are _____ in Na+ and Cl-

A

low

110
Q

Distribution of Potassium

A
  • major INTRACELLULAR cation (98% intracellular)
  • red blood cells: K+ is 25x more concentrated in RBC than in plasma
  • 0.2-0.25% of body weight
  • movements of K+ across membrane are always opposite to that of Na+
111
Q

K+ carries out many functions____ of the cell that Na carries out in _____ and ______

A

inside, plasma, interstitial fluid

112
Q

Functions of K+

A
  1. acid/base balance
  2. na+/K+ ATPase pump- neuromuscular function, nutrient transport
  3. membrane permeability and osmotic regulation
  4. activation of enzymes- glycolysis and glycogen synthesis
  5. enhance amino acid uptake
  6. stimulate insulin release
  7. normal heart activity: K+ has opposite effect on blood pressure than Na+ and Ca++
113
Q

what does an increase in K+ do to blood pressure

A

decrease it

114
Q

what does an increase in Na+ do to blood pressure

A

increase it

115
Q

Where is potassium absorbed? How?

A

in intestines.

via passive diffusion, Na+/K+ ATPase exchange pump

116
Q

Excretion of potassium

A

90% via urine- active re-absorption maintains body balance

-perspiration

117
Q

Potassium deficiencies

A
  1. muscular weakness/ stiffness in the extremities
  2. poor appetite
  3. cardiac weakness
  4. dehydration- K+ deficiency affects Na+ and water balance
  5. Hyperglycemia due to reduced insulin secretion and glucocontrol
  6. reduced amino acid uptake and protein synthesis
118
Q

functions of chloride

A
  1. maintain extracellular fluid because Cl- follows Na+
  2. HCl synthesis in the gastric mucosa
  3. CO2 respiration (RBC and Lungs: chloride shift
119
Q

Chloride is a major______ anion

A

extracellular

120
Q

chloride defiencies

A
  1. hemoconcentration- increased [RBC], low plasma volume, linked to Na+
  2. Dehydration
  3. Spontaneous tetany associated with alkalosis- HCO3- increases to compensate for low Cl- ions in blood
121
Q

main sites of chloride absorption

A

ileum, proximal large intestines, and colon

122
Q

chloride excretion

A

urine- 90-95%
feces: 4-8%
other routes: skin (sweat)

123
Q

Rich sources of magnesium

A

in humans:
-meats, peas, and nuts (almonds

in ruminants, swine and poultry

  • legume forages
  • grains (cereal, soybean meal)
  • meat and bone meal
  • fish meals
124
Q

Poor sources of Magnesium

A

milk, corn silage, liver

125
Q

Magnesium functions

A
  • most common enzyme activator
  • redox potential of Mg2+ makes it a preferred cofactor in many enzymes systems- co-factor for over 300 enzymes
  • involved in reactions involving ATP

-Mg2+ is essential for growing and actively metabolizing cells (role in ATP stabilization)

126
Q

Body distribution of Magnesium

A

60% of body’s Mg is in skeletal tissue (bone and teeth, storage site)

concentration of Mg in bone ash is 0.5-0.7%

127
Q

factors influencing absorption

A
  • high intake of Ca2+ (antagonizes), PO4- (chelates) or K+ (antagonizes):
    • decrease in Mg absorption; decrease in serum and bone Mg
  • ruminants: high nitrogen intakes leads to Mg forming insoluble complexes with rumen NH3
  • phytates in grains and plants: chelates Mg and decreases absorption
128
Q

homeostasis of Mg2+

A

no endogenous secretions of Mg2+; it is consumed, absorbed, and excreted

129
Q

Mg2+ deficiencies

A

humans: 60% of humans eat less than RDA
- –but deficiencies are rare in population
- –prevalent in alcoholics, malnutrition, kidney disease, diarrhea, taking diuretics, lactating mothers

farm animals:

  • –ruminants most prone: Mg2+ complexes formed in rumen
  • —other situations
  • ——high Ca, PO4, and K intake leads to diarrhea and lactation
130
Q

symptoms of Mg deficiency

A
  • vasodilation, erythema (reddened skin), hyperemia (excess blood in tissues)
  • cyanosis (bluish skin)
  • hyperactivity and tetany (stiff legs and neck)

long-term advance symptoms

  • **calcification of kidney tubules
  • **fibrotic and calcified small blood vessels
131
Q

What is grass tetany? Why does it occur?

A

“grass staggers” occurs in early spring in lush pastures, 1-6 weeks after grazing in spring
-pastures are high in K+ and soluble N (high rumen ammonia)

132
Q

milk tetany (calves)

A

milk low in Mg for suckling calves

133
Q

what is the most prevalent deficiency worldwide?

A

Fe2+/3+

134
Q

Good sources of iron

A

blood meal, meat and bone meal, fish meal

135
Q

poor sources of iron

A

milk-low in iron

inorganic sources: ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate

136
Q

functions of iron

A

electron carrier in the electron transport chain

associated with hemoglobin (Fe-Hb)

137
Q

body disribution of iron

A

65% in red blood cells (gemoglobin)- but RBC not a storage site

25% stored in bone marrow, spleen, liver

138
Q

factors influencing iron absorption

A
  1. valence state of Fe
    Fe2+ (reduced) > Fe3+ (oxidized)
  2. pH- acidic pH keeps iron in Fe2+ state
139
Q

what inhibits iron absorption?

A
  1. Phytates and fibers
  2. oxalates (eg spinach)
  3. Ca (competes) and P (phospates bind)
  4. EDTA (food additives)
  5. Tannic acid and polyphenols in tea and coffee
140
Q

How are baby pigs susceptible to Fe deficiency

A

low Fe stores at birth and milk is low in Fe

141
Q

How are humans susceptible to Fe deficiency

A

pregnancy, menstruation, blood loss from injury or gastric ulcers

142
Q

Symptoms of Fe Deficiency

A
  1. thinning of epithelial tissues of mouth/digestive tract.
  2. lassitiude (weakness, exhaustion)
  3. eyes and mouth=> pale coloration
  4. reduced melanin production- lightened hair color
  5. muscle weakness
  6. labored breathing (related to Fe-Hg)
  7. enlarged heart
    Hypochromic microcytic anemia (small and pale)
143
Q

Copper sources

A

animals: corn gluten feed/meal, grass hays, soybean meal, colostrums, copper carbonate, copper sulfate
humans: liver and kidney, shellfish, legumes, nuts and seeds, chocolate

144
Q

Functions of copper

A
  1. hematopoiesis (RBC synthesis)
  2. co-factor for lysyl oxidase
  3. cotochrome C oxidase
  4. Ceruloplasmin (required for iron transport and storage)
  5. superoxide dismutase (Cu is co-factor, destroys free radicals)
  6. Myelin sheath formation
  7. Cu facilitates Fe absorption and liver Fe release
145
Q

Distribution of Cu in body

A
  • liver (reflects dietary dietary Cu intake)
  • hair/wool (reflects dietary Cu intake)
  • in blood Ceruloplasmin (90%), albumin and erythrocuprein
146
Q

factors influencing absorption of Cu

A 
low pH: increases
high pH: decreases
zinc, Fe, and Manganese: reduces
phytate: decreases (phytate binds to zine)
molybdenum with sulfur
147
Q

copper absorption occurs mostly in

A

the duodenum

148
Q

zinc stimulates_______

A

metalothionein synthesis-> reduces Cu absorption by sequestering Cu

149
Q

absorption preference

A

CuSO4> Cu-sulfide > Cu-nitrate

150
Q

Cu deficiency symptoms

A
  • general anemia
  • scouring/diarrhea
  • loss of crimp in wool
  • alopecia
  • reduced fertility and fetal death
  • RBC and connective tissue development (RBC fragile and rupture of vessel walls)
151
Q

Toxicity of Cu

A
  • acculmulation of Cu in liver
  • anemia (excess Cu blocks or ties up Fe)
  • Tissue necrosis
  • jaundice

Animal Nutrition- minerals (1 decks)

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