Mod 1-4 Flashcards
1
Q
8 Branches of Genetics
A
Behavioral Genetics, Biochemical Genetics, Cytogenetics, Developmental Genetics, Evolutionary Genetics, Molecular Genetics, Population Genetics, Quantitative Genetics
2
Q
5 Applications of Genetics
A
Plant, Animal, and Microbial Improvement, Medicine, Legal Counselling, Legal Application, Genetic Engineering
3
Q
The term Genetics was coined by who in 1905
A
William Bateson
4
Q
The Greek word ‘gen’ means
A
“to become” or “to grow into something”
5
Q
Branch of Biology that deals with heredity and variation
A
Genetics
6
Q
Refers to the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. It provides the basis for similarities.
A
Heredity
7
Q
Refers to the differences among individuals
A
Variation
8
Q
Most fascinating field of Biology
A
Genetics
9
Q
The principal determinants of life processes
A
Genes
10
Q
A unifying principle in Biology.
A
Genetics
11
Q
Three inter-related but broad fields of genetics
A
Transmission genetics, molecular genetics, population genetics
12
Q
Also knows as “Classical Genetics”
A
Transmission genetics
13
Q
This subdivision of genetics covers the basic principles of genetics (connection between heredity and chromosomes, location and arrangement of gene in a chromosome, gene maping)
A
Transmission genetics
14
Q
The focus of this field is on the individual organism from acquisition of traits, genetic make-up, and how it passes on its genes to the next generation
A
Transmission Genetics
15
Q
This field delves into the chemical nature of the gene
A
Molecular Genetics
16
Q
Molecular genetics revolve around the central cellular processes namely:
A
Replication, transcription, translation
17
Q
This field is concerned with studies that describe genetic changes over time and how genetic composition and population dynamics implicate evolution
A
Population genetics
18
Q
It (the field) focuses on genetic makeup of individuals of the SAME SPECIES
A
Population genetics
19
Q
Studies chromosomes, the visible carriers of DNA
A
Cytogenetics
20
Q
Studies how heredity and environmental influences affect behavior
A
Behavioral Genetics
21
Q
Studies how genetic variation leads to speciation and adaptation
A
Evolutionary Genetics
22
Q
Studies the changes in genes and allele frequencies in populations over space and time
A
Population Genetics
23
Q
Studies how genes control the growth and development of an organism
A
Developmental Genetics
24
Q
Studies the relationship of genes and their control over functions of an enzyme in a metabolic pathway
A
Biochemical Genetics
25
Studies the role of genetics and the environment on inheritance of quantitative traits
Quantitative Genetics
26
Studies structure and function of genes at a molecular level
Molecular Genetics
27
The Father of Genetics
Gregor Mendel
28
Discovered hereditary "factors" which we now refer to as GENES
Gregor Mendel
29
Observed and predicted transmission of traits across generations
Gregor Mendel
30
Conclusion of Gregor Mendel
(1) gene is passed from parents to successive generations in a predictable fashion
(2) gene codes for information that would determine structure, function, and other biological properties
31
Prior to Mendel's time, heredity was thought to be
a "blending" process
32
What hypothesis cannot account for cases when children resembled only one of the parents
Blending
33
Theory that says all organisms originated from miniature forms of themselves
Preformation theory
34
the pre-formed small human body that can be found in either ovum or sperm
homunculus
35
Greek philosopher that rejected the notion that offspring is pre-formed in either the "seed (or homunculus)" of ovum and sperm.
Aristotle
36
For types of causes for existence
Material, Final, Formal, Efficient causes
37
He proposed that semen was formed everywhere. He referred to a female's menstrual blood as female semen
Aristotle
38
According to Aristotle, the male parent provided the
nature of individual
39
According to Aristotle, the female parent provided the
supportive environment
40
Formal cause begins the
Developmental process
41
According to Aristotle, what is the conveyor of inheritance
Blood or semen
42
Proponent of Theory of Pangenesis
Charles Darwin
43
Pan from Pangenesis means?
whole
44
Genesis from Pangenesis means
origin
45
He discussed his mechanism of heredity through
gemmules
46
unit of inheritance according to Darwin
gemmules
47
gemmules is a diminutive word of
gemma
48
gemma means
bud
49
minute particles that are shed by cells of an organism
gemmules
50
What completed theory of evolution
Pangenesis
51
Theory of Evolution has been widely accepted while Theory of Genesis is largely thought as
wrong
52
Basis of Pangenesis
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
53
Proposed to be the fundamental mechanism of evolution
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
54
It states that as an organism adapt to its environment, modifications to the organisms will arise. Such modifications are automatically handed down to descendants.
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
55
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
56
Proponent of Germplasm Theory
August Weismann
57
Sex cells (or germplasm) perpetuated during reproduction generation after generation
Germplasm Theory
58
Second most notable evolutionary theorist after darwin
August Weismann
59
Theory that illustrated how gametes (germ cells - sperm cells or sperm cells) but not somatic cells function as agents of heredity
Germplasm Theory
60
During what does idantss of germplasm in the zygote doubles
amphimixis
61
basis or foundation of Classical or Transmission Genetics
Blending
62
Other scientists who studied Biological inheritance
Naudin, Gartner, Kolreuter, Dzierzon
63
One scientist who also took into account numerical rations in their methodologies
Dzierzon
64
Rediscoverers of Mendel
Hugo de Vries (Netherlands)
Erick von Tschermak (Austria)
Carl Correns (Germany)
65
Showed Mendel's Principles also apply to animals, not just plants
William Bateson
Edith Rebecca Saunders
Lucien Cuenot
66
Associated Mendelian factors to physical structures we call 'chromosomes'
Walter S. Sutton (USA)
Theodor Boveri (Germany)
67
Confirmed association of genes and chromosomes and demonstrated that MANY GENES ARE HOUSED IN EACH OF THE CHROMOSOMES
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Calvin B. Bridges
68
what played roles in the structure, function, and evolution of all organisms
genes
69
Who identified that DNA is the genetic material
Oswald T. Avery
Collin M. Macleod
Maclyn McCarty
70
Who identified that DNA is the genetic material
Oswald T. Avery
Collin M. Macleod
Maclyn MacCarty
71
Responsible for the elucidation of the molecular structure of the DNA (DNA Double Helix)
James D. Watson
Francis H.C. Crick
72
X-ray diffraction and crystallography of DNA
Maurice Wilkins
Rosalind Franklin
73
Gave better understanding of how genes are transmitted across generations and how they are expressed in individuals or in a population
Crystallography of DNA
74
Rapid progress in MOLECULAR GENETICS gave rise to disciplines such as
Molecular Biology
Synthetic Biology
75
Requires knowledge of Mathematics, Statistics, Biochemistry, and Ecology, among others TO ESTABLISH ORDERLY VARIETY OF PATTERNS of patterns and changes in living forms over time
Evolutionary genetics
76
Need staining technologies, applied physics, advanced microscopy, and imaging techniques to be able to address problems concerning INDIVIDUAL ABNORMALITIES
Cytogenetics
77
Employ knowledge of Ecology, Math, or Statistics
Population Genetics
78
Asses population dynamics and the changes in gene and allele frequencies
Quantitative Genetics
79
Utilize learnings from physiology, morpho-anatomy, and biochemistry to explain how individuals of THE SAME OR DIFF SPECIES WOULD DEVELOP and HOW THEY MAINTAIN THEIR OWN UNIQUE PATTERN AND ABILITY O EXIST CONTINUALLY
Developmental Genetics
80
Knowledge of inheritance of both desirable and undesirable characterstics in family
Genetic counselling
81
DNA profiles or fingerprints
Legal application
82
Greater opportunities to realize genetic gain, stable increases, and better production
Recombinant DNA Technology
83
Improving crops, domestic animals, and microorganisms
Selective Hybridization and breeding
84
Basic unit of life
Cell
85
genetic material in nuclear zone is also referred to as
nucleoid
86
genetic material in nuclear zone not enclosed in distinct bound nucleus and freely suspended in cytoplasm
Prokaryotic cell
87
Contain intracellular membranes, a true nucleus, and intracellular compartments
Eukaryotic cells
88
intracellular components are also known as
organelles
89
Genetiic material is in the form of
Chromatin
90
Compact form of chromatin
chromosome
91
housed within the nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrain
chromosome
92
conspicuous domain in nucleus which serve as a site for producing and assembling the cell's ribosomes
Nucleolus
93
Sample of Prokaryotic cell
Bacteria
Cyanobacteria
94
Sample of Eukaryotic cell
Protist
Fungi
Plants
Animals
95
Size of prokaryotic cell
1-10 um
96
Size of eukaryotic cell
10-100 um
97
Cell division of Prokaryotic cell
Binary fission
98
Cell division of Eukaryotic cell
Mitosis and Meiosis
99
a double-membrane structure that is the primary director of cellular activity and inheritance
nucleus
100
dark network of nuclear content
chromatin
101
chromatin is stored in
nucleus
102
during cell division, chromatin become distinct bodies called
chromosomes
103
series of events where cell grows and divides
cell cycle
104
preparatory and non-dividing stage of cell cycle that precedes cell division
Interphase
105
cell division is also known as
M-Phase (Mitosis/Meiosis)
106
What stage is consisted of morphologically identical but biochemically distinguishable phases
Interphase
107
re the biochemically distinguishable phases
G1
S
G2
108
Longest phase in cell cycle. During this, cell imbibes water and nutrients and builds new protoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles
G1 phase
109
Synthesis stage considered of prime importance because it is during this period when DNA is replicated
S phase
110
Period when cell synthesizes RNA and proteins
G2
111
What happens at the end of G2
Cell is ready to divide
Genetic Material is duplicated
Double chromatin fiber is folded to become chromosome
112
Contents of octameric histone core
2 each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 histones
113
DNA wrapped around octameric histone core form a blank that spans a diameter of 11 nm
nucleosome
114
What stabilize the linking of DNA to the core which forms Chromatosome
H1 Histone
115
Nucleosomes are coiled in the form of a
solenoid
116
any nucleosomes per coil
6
117
What is the diameter of chromatin thread formed by solenoidf
30 nm
118
each chromosome is composed of how many sister chromatids
2 sister chromatids
119
Kinetochore proteins attach to Blank which is also known as the primary constriction
Centromere
120
What attaches to kinetochore proteins
Spindle fiber
121
The tips or ends of chromosomes are referred to as
Telomeres
122
Secondary constriction which looks like a knob structure at terminal portion
Saellite
123
complete set of genes or chromosomes coming from male or female parent is called
Genome, denoted by X (basic chromosome number)
124
True diploid (X) is equal to
haploid number (n)
125
diploid number is also referred to as
Somatic chromosome number (2n)
126
Haploid number is also called as the
gametic chromosome number (n)
127
What consist the 24 hour cell cycle of humans
8 hours G1 Phase
11 hours S-phase
4 hours G2-phase
1 hour M-phase
128
Mitosis for unicellular organisms is to
to reproduce
129
Mitosis for multicellular organism is for
for growth and development
for replacement of damaged cells
130
The first to note and describe in detail how chromosomes move during mitosis, which helped Sutton and Boveri's Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Walter Flemming
131
Stage where chromosomes condense and are visible composed of sister chromatids
Prophase
132
Spindle fibers attached to kinetochore align the chromosomes at the equitorial plate
Metaphase
133
Sister chromatids are pulled apart and moved to the opposite poles by "shortening" (depolymerization) of spindle fibers. Each sister chromatid = 1 chromosome
Anaphase
134
Chromosomes reached the opposite poles and form two groups having the same number of chromosomes.
Telophase
135
ision of cytoplasm that is achieved after telophase
Cytokenesis
136
Plant cells forms what at metaphase plate
phragmoplasts (cell plate formation)
137
Animal cells forms what at metaphase plate
cell cleavage (cleavage furrow formation)
138
It involves union of two haploid cells
fertilization
139
special kind of cell division undergone by germ cells
Meiosis
140
Process of meiosis was discovered and described independently by
Walter Sutton - grasshopper testes
Theodor Boveri - Worms (Ascarsis Sp.)
141
Referred to as the reductional division
Meiosis I
142
Process of meiosis was discovered and described independently by
Walter Sutton - grasshopper testes
Theodor Boveri - Worms (Ascarsis Sp.)
143
A transitional stage between Meiosis I and II
interkinesis
144
Equational division are
Mitosis and Meiosis II
145
5 substages of Prophase I
LZPDD
Leptotene
Zygotene
Pachytene
Diplotene
Diakinesis
146
This stage is similar to earliest prophase wherein chromosomes appear as thin threads
Leptotene
147
Homologous chromosomes pair (aka synapsis) and associate bivalents.
Considered as the adjoining phase
Stage where Synaptonemal complex forms between homologous chromosomes
Zygotene
148
Protein structure that is essential for crossing-over
Synaptonemal complex
149
Stage where chromatids undergo repair when damaged. This may involve crossing-over facilitated by synaptonemal complex
Formation of chiasma
Pachytene
150
Point of chromatid exchange at cross-over forms what
Chiasma
151
Stage where synaptonemal complex loses functionality and bivalents get separated.
Chromosomes shorten and terminalization of chiasma occurs
Diplotene
152
Stage where chromosomes are contracted, nucleolus disintegrated, and formation of spindle begins.
Best stage to establish chromosome number
Diakinesis
153
Bivalents arrange at metaphase plate
Metaphase I
154
Homologous chromosomes separate from each other and move toward opposite poles. Each chromosome is composed of haploid number, ACCOUNTING FOR THE REDUCTIONAL PHASE of Meiosis I
Anapahase I
155
Chromosomes regroup at the poles. Chromosomes begin to relax. Cytoplasm may divide (cytokinesis) to produce two distinct haploid cells
Telophase I
156
Chromosomes of TWO haploid cells appear duplicated. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintigrate at this stage
Prophase II
157
wo new spindle fibers are formed. Chromosoimes align at the metaphase plate
Metaphase II
158
Chromatids separate from each other
Anaphase II
159
Chromosomes regroup at their arrival pole. It uncoils and lengthen. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reapper. Cytoplasm gets divided (cytokinesis) to produce a total of four distinct haploid cells
Telophase II
160
Variations is due mainly to
Differences in time spent for each generation
Type of phase species is predominantly in
Products (gametes or spores)
161
Also known as Terminal or Gametic Meiosis showed by animals and lower plants
Gametic life cycle
162
Produced during fertilization of haploid gametes
diploid zygote
163
Gives rise to primary spermatocytes
spermatogonium
164
ves rise to primary oocytes
oogonium
165
Ovum/Sperm carries a haploid set of chromosome ___
(22+X)
166
Known as the Initial or Zygotic Meiosis exhibited by algae, fungi, and diatoms
Zygotic Life Cycle
167
Gametic life cycle is type described as
diploid-dominant life cycle
168
Intermediary or sporic meisos typically shown by flowering plants and those species with alternation of generation is known as
Sporic Life Cycle
169
Haploid multicellular plants are called
gametophytes (producing gametes and meiosis is not typically involved
170
Fertilization of gametes from the diploid zygote that will undergo rounds of mitosis and produce a MULTICELLULAR DIPLOID PLANT is called
sporophyte
171
Scientific name of green peas
Pisum sativum
172
Inherited factor on chromosome responsible for a trait
gene
173
location of gene on a chromosome
locus
174
genetic constitution of an individual
genotype
175
alternative forms of a gene
allele
176
physical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral traits of an individual
phenotype
177
determined by genotype and its interaction with the environment
phenotype
178
gene expressing full effect despite the presence of another allele of the same gene
dominant
179
gene not expressed in presence of another allele
recessive
180
two copies of the same allele of a gene (e.g. YY, yy)
homozygous
181
two different alleles of the same gene (e.g. Yy)
heterozygous
182
cross between two individuals with contrasting traits
hybridization
183
first generation produced after mating between parents that are homozygous for different alleles
F1 or first filial generation
184
The generation produced by self fertilization or sib-mating of F1 individuals
F2 generation or second filial generation
185
crossing of a heterozygote with one of its parents
Backcrossing
186
(pre-mendelian) thought of a blending process
Heredity
187
Samples that Mendel used with contrasting traits
Pure line or true breeding parents
188
one dominant allele is enough to express the dominant trait
(Homozygous or heterozygote have the same phenotype)
Complete Dominance
189
Alleles in gene pair separate cleanly from each other during meiosis
Law of Segregation
190
Genotypic ratio of AA x Aa
2 AA : 2 AA or 1 AA : 1 Aa
191
Genotypic ratio of Aa x aa
2 Aa : 2 aa or 1 Aa : 1aa
192
consider two traits at the same time
Dihybrid cross
193
If parentals are RRYY x rryy, what are the Gametes and F1?
Gametes: RR x Ry
F1: RrYy
194
F2 Ratio of RRYY x rryy
or F1 RrYy
9:3:3:1
195
Alleles of DIFFERENT GENE PAIRS
SEPARATE INDEPENDENTLY from each other and RANDOMLY COMBINE during meiosis
Law of Independent Assortment
196
If two pairs of contrasting traits are inherited independently, to predict the frequencies of F2 phenotypes, apply the
Proudct Law of Probabilities
197
For simultaneous occurence of two independtent events what is equal to the product of their individual probabilities
combined probability of two outcomes
198
If two events are not independent, the likelihood of an outcome is referred to as
Conditional Probability
199
He isolated nuclein from nuclei of pus cells
Friedrich Miescher
200
nucleus required in cell division and fertilization
O. Hertwig
201
Chromosomes are in the nucleus
E. Strassburger
Walter Fleming
202
Correlations between Chromosomes and Mendelian Factors
Chromosome and Mendelian Factors exist in pairs
Homologous chromosomes and mendelian factors separate at Anaphase I
Fertilization restores the diploid chromosome Number
203
F2 phenotypic and genotypic ratio of Complete Dominance
F2 genotypic ratio: 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
F2 phenotypic ratio: 3:1
204
F1 phenotype is intermediate
Incomplete dominance
205
Phenotypic and Genotypic ratio of F2 Incomplete dominance
F2 Genotypic ratio: 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
F2 Phenotypic ratio : 1 : 2 : 1
206
Aa is superior to AA and aa (heterosis or hybrid vigor)
Overdominance
207
products of two alleles in heterozygote are present
Co-dominance
208
What is present on the surface of RBC
Glycolipid (oligosaccharide + lipid)
209
Reason behind ABO blood types
difference in oligosaccharide
210
Genotype of A blood type
AA
AO
211
Genotype of B blood type
BB
BO
212
Antigen of O blood type
H
213
H antigen is
Fucose (5th)
214
A antigen is
N-acetyl glucosamine (6th)
215
B-antigen is
galactosamine (6th)
216
Universal Blood Donator
O
217
Universal Blood Receiver
AB
218
genes that can cause death
lethal genes
219
lethal when homozygous recessive
could result to a recognizable phenotype when heterozygous
Recessive lethal gene
1:2:1 genotype
1:2:0 phenotype
220
Abnormal spine development
Extreme development abnormality
Causes the death of the embryo
Tailless
Heterozygous
Manx allele (Mn^l)
221
Homozygous recessive; normal at birth
Deterioration of CNS starts before 1 yr old
Loss of neuromuscular control; blindness
Lack of hexosaminidase A
Accumulation of GM2 gangliosides (lipids in brain and nerve cells)
usually fatal at three to four years old
Tay-Sachs disease
222
Lacks DNA repair enzyme
Photosensitive
Exposure to light causes freckling and pigmentation and warty growths
Xeroderma pigmentosum
223
letal when homozygous dominant or heterozygous
Dominant Lethal Gene
224
The dominant allele codes for an abnormal HUNTINGTIN protein
Described by George Huntington
Progressive degeneration of CNS; involuntary movements
onset of symptoms at 30 y.o. or earlier death at 40-50 y.o.
Huntington's disease
225
gene changes phenotypic effect of other genes in a QUANTITATIVE fashion
Dilution or enhancement effect
Modifier genes
226
Non allelic interaction of two or more genes
result in a modified phenotypic ratio
interaction between two or more genes determine single phenotype
Gene Interaction
227
interaction of two or more genes
determined by observing certain phenotypic ratios
Epistasis
228
F2 ratio: 9:3:3:1
E.g. comb type in poultry
Novel phenotype
229
F2 Ratio: 9:3:4
Homozygous recessive gene hides the effect of the other gene
Recessive Epistasis
230
F2 Ratio: 12:3:1
Dominant gene masks the expression of the other gene
Dominant Epistasis
231
One gene when dominant is epistatic to the second
Second gene homozygous recessive is epistatic to the first
F2 ratio: 13:3
Dominant epistasis
232
Either gene when homozygous recessive is epistatic to the other gene
F2: 9:7
Complementary gene action
233
Either gene when dominant is epistatic to the other gene
F2: 15:1
Duplicate gene action
234
Lewis 1951
Star-asteroid in Drosophila
Star and star recessive (ast)
two different mutants located on same chromosomes
Pseudoalleles
235
Phenotype is not only dependent on genotype but also on the position of the genes on the chromosome
Lewis effect or Position effect
236
Proportion of genotype that shows the expected phenotype
Penetrance
237
all will show the trait (100%)
complete penetrance
238
not all will show the trait
incomplete penetrance
239
degree in which a particular phgenotypic effect is exhibited by an individual
Expressivity (Constant or Variable)
240
one gene has multiple phenotypic cell effects (e.g sickle cell anemia)
Pleiotropy
241
Genetically based human disease
Sickle cell anemia
242
environmental mimic of gene action
Environmental induces a particular phenotype that resembles a genetically determined phenotype
Phenocopy
243
drug to cure morning sickness
Thalidomide
244
Underdeveloped limbs
Phocomelia
245
Environmental factors responsible for differences in penetrance & expressivity
1. External Environmental
a. Temperature
B. Light
C. Nutrition
D. Maternal relations
2. Internal environment
a. age
b. sex
c. substrates
246
both members or twins show or dont show the trait
concordant
247
only one member shows the trait
disconcordant
248
High heriditary influence results in
High concordance in identical twins
Low concordance in fraternal twins
249
Low hereditary influence & high environmental influence
Equal concordance and disconcordance between IT and FT
