MOD 2 BIOTECHNOLOGY

Question 1

What is Biotechnology?

Answer 1

Biotechnology is the CONTROLLED and DELIBERATE MANIPULATION of SYSTEMS (living cells or components) for efficient manufacture or processing of useful products.

Question 2

What is Bio?

Answer 2

living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms-bacteria, algae, fungi)

Question 3

What is Technology?

Answer 3

tools and techniques used to change one’s environment

Question 4

What is traditional biotechnology?

Answer 4

MACROSCOPIC PROCESS (organisms can be seen by the naked eye) that uses the ENTIRE organisms of the same or closely related species in an UNPREDICTABLE, UNCERTAIN and LIMITED manner- must use the whole organism.

Question 5

What are examples of traditional/ancient biotechnology?

Answer 5

1. Fermentation
2. Selective Breeding

Question 6

What is fermentation?

Answer 6

Fermentation is a chemical process by which molecules such as glucose are broken down anaerobically.

EG 1. A mixture of yeast, carbohydrates (fruits, flowers, hops, malt and sugar) and water convert into carbon dioxide and alcohol (ethanol) to create wines, beer, bread and biofuel.

EG 2. Bacteria and carbohydrates (milk) create lactic acid and vinegar which is ten use to create food such as yogurt and cheese.

Question 7

What is selective (plant and animal) breeding?

Answer 7

Animals- crossbreeding using animals such as dogs, cows, horses and sheep. Crossbreeding is the act of mating two organisms, usually from different breeds to produce animals with more desirable traits.- For example, animals can be bred for better performance, quality/ quantity milk & meat; domestication of animals eg. buffalypso

Plants- Grafting- bred for higher yields and quality.Eg Staples & fruit (mangoes,
oranges, corn, wheat, rice, bananas)

Question 8

What is modern biotechnology?

Answer 8

Use of small and microscopic organisms to manipulate genetic material (genes) in a predictable and controlled environment to
change the genetic makeup of the organism
and to produce new entities such as organs, tissues and cells.

NOT LIMITED TO THE WHOLE ORGANISM OR RELATED SPECIES

Genetic engineering is the core method for practicing Biotechnology.

Question 9

What are the types of Modern Biotechnology? (Colours)

Answer 9

GREEN/AGRICULTURAL-Applied to agricultural processes and products
RED/MEDICAL- Used in the research and manufacture of pharmaceuticals E.g. insulin. vaccines and antibiotics
WHITE or GREY/ INDUSTRIAL- Applied to sustainable processing and
production of chemicals, materials & fuels.
BLUE/MARINE or FRESH WATER- Production of marine and freshwater animals

Question 10

What are chromosomes?

Answer 10

Chromosomes are thread -like structures found in the nucleus of every cell.

They are made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones to maintain its structure.

Each human cell has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs. 22 pairs of these chromosomes are the same in both male and female(autosomes). The 23rd pair, called the sex chromosome, differ between men and women. Women have two pairs of the x chromosome whilst men have one x and one y.

Question 11

What is DNA?

Answer 11

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a self-replicating molecule that stores genetic information in the form of genes that determines the genotype and phenotype of an organism.

It is found in the nucleus and/or the mitochondrion of cells.

Provides the information needed for the structure, growth, development and functioning of all living organisms and some viruses.

It is made up of adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine (ATCG protein/DNA code) and arranged as two chains wrapped around each other, described as a ladder that has been twisted/double helix molecule.

Question 12

What is a gene?

Answer 12

A gene is a specific sequence of DNA or RNA (ribonucleic acid) which codes for a protein molecule that has a specific function. E.g insulin, hemoglobin

The order of the bases, ATCG in the DNA and the sequence of the gene determines the size and shape of the protein it builds. The size and shape determine the specific function it will have in the body.

Bases of inheritances (genotypic and phenotypic)
Genes determine what you are and how you look like.

Defective, malfunctioning, or mutating genes cause disease or genetic disorders.

Question 13

What is mutagenesis?

Answer 13

a process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed in a stable
manner, resulting in a mutation.

It occurs spontaneously in nature, because of exposure to mutagens (agents that cause changes to DNA) or experimentally- using laboratory procedures.

In nature, mutagenesis can lead to cancer and various heritable diseases, but it is also the driving force of evolution.

Question 13

What is the Human Genome Project?

Answer 13

Created in 1990, teh human genome project was an international effort to map out the 3 billion base pairs and genes of the human genome (all human DNA)

This would help:
Better diagnosis of genetic disorders
Better understanding of tosic agents that are liable to cause genetic mutations
Improved Gene Therapy

Question 14

What are transgenic organisms?

Answer 14

Organisms or cells whose genomes have been altered through recombinant DNA technology by either combining the DNA of different genomes or the insertion of foreign DNA into a genome using artificial means.

EG. Cats with FIV (Feline Immunodeficiency Virus)
Scientists inserted a gene found in monkeys know to resist the spread of FIV into cats. To visually track the activity of the altered gene, they also inserted a fluorescent protein GFP.

Question 15

What is genetic engineering?

Answer 15

the direct modification of an organism’s genome (genetic makeup) either by
manipulation of the genes located on the DNA or transfer of genes from unrelated species e.g.,
Genetically Modified Organisms - GMOs / Genetically Modified Foods – GMFs.

Question 16

What is recombinant DNA technology?

Answer 16

modification of the DNA of a particular species by joining DNA sequences from two different sources. Used for biopharmaceuticals, medical diagnostics, energy
applications – biofuel production & agricultural biotechnology – modified fruits and vegetables

Question 18

What is genetic engineering?

Answer 18

is the direct modification of an organism’s genome (genetic makeup) either by
manipulation of the genes located on the DNA or transfer of genes from unrelated species e.g.,
Genetically Modified Organisms - GMOs / Genetically Modified Foods – GMFs.

Question 19

What is recombinant DNA technology?

Answer 19

modification of the DNA of a particular species by joining DNA sequences from two different sources. Used for biopharmaceuticals, medical diagnostics, energy
applications – biofuel production & agricultural biotechnology – modified fruits and vegetables.

Question 20

What is gene cloning?

Answer 20

process of creating an exact copy of a biological unit e.g. DNA sequence, cells,
tissues, organisms.

Question 21

What are the types of gene cloning?

Answer 21

1. Reproductive cloning-producing an exact copy of the entire organism.
2. Therapeutic cloning (cells)- used for medical treatment where tissues /organs are cloned to replace no functional tissues / organs.

Question 22

what are the streps to basic genetic engineering?

Answer 22

1. Isolate DNA from cells
2. Identify the gene for a desired characteristic.
3. Allow DNA to multiply using a Polymerase Chain Reaction using DNA polymerase enzyme.
4. Isolate and cut specific gene of interest using restriction enzymes – restriction endonuclease.
5. Insert gene into a vector – plasmid.
6. Insert vector with recombinant DNA gene into host organism for new genetic combinations - gene cloning process to begin.

Question 23

How is genetic engineering applied?

Answer 23

Tissue culture- tissues & cells or part of a plant or animal (living tissue) transferred to
survive and grow in an artificial (controlled) medium e.g., growing new plant species/
varieties – banana, pineapple, casava, tomato

Gene therapy- is a technique that modifies a person’s genes to treat or cure disease. E.g. treatment of brain tumor and blood disorder such as sickle-cell anemia

Question 24

What is green/agricultural biotechnology?

Answer 24

Agricultural biotechnology uses genetic engineering (based on our understanding of DNA) to improve crops and livestock that are not possible with conventional breeding alone.

Question 25

What organisms is Agri biotech applied to?

Answer 25

Flowers e.g., anthuriums, roses, lilies, orchids

Food crops such as wheat, tomatoes, sweet corn, berries, broccoli, soya beans, peppers,
peas/ beans, onions, purple cabbage, yams, papaya, soya beans, rice (golden rice), fish e.g salmon & freshwater varieties -Tilapia, meat, milk, eggs, and cocoa research.

Other products e.g cotton, purple tomatoes, Flavr Savar tomatoes & pink pineapples

Question 26

What is plant tissue culture?

Answer 26

Involves the use of small pieces of plant tissue to produce callus cells which can be induced to rapidly produce new roots and shoots (many new plantlets.) of different plant varieties.

Question 27

What is the purpose of green biotechnology?

Answer 27

Micro-propagation – rapid vegetative production of crops
* Plant breeding to regenerate saplings.
* Production of genetically variable plants
* Disease treatment – eradication of plant viruses & tumors
* Biochemical production

Question 28

What are the benefits of using green biotechnology/genetic engineering in plants?

Answer 28

• Genetic engineering of new plant varieties which are: -
  1. Reduced vulnerability and increased resistance to pests, insects, disease, soil conditions
  2. Better yields – greater production of corn, soya bean, cotton, canola & sugar beet
  3. Increased earnings from agriculture
  4. Crop diversification to get improved characteristics such as appearance, flavor, and
  durability (shelf life).
  5. Mitigate against the impact of climate change by producing drought/ flood resistant plants.
  6. Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides, water, and other agro. chemicals
  7. increased nutritional value – addition of vitamins (A, C) and minerals (iron, zinc)
  8. Conservation of the germplasm – molecular breeding e.g., Chaconia flowers, Trinitario cocoa
  9. Plant tissue culture - harvesting of living cells from plants, used to facilitate growth of (exact
  replications) of new plants and its applications to food production.
  10. Plant disease diagnostics and treatment
  11. Production of crops that are fit for the export market.
  12. Addresses FOOD SECURITY issues

Question 29

What are some concerns of agricultural biotechnology?

Answer 29

Laboratory safety / bio safety
➢ Unintended consequences (illnesses) from food consumption
➢ Environmental harm - unintended eradication of other agricultural species due to cross
pollination and toxicity to certain insects such as caterpillars.
➢ Violation of research & development Codes of Ethics
➢ Infringement of Intellectual property rights (IPRs)
IPRs such as GM plant varieties
Patents - Plant Breeder Rights, Copyrights, Trade secrets & Trademarks,
Monopoly on seeds, protocols & knowledge
Technology transfer

Question 30

Why are some scientists calling for a worldwide ban on Genetically modified foods?

Answer 30

the gene introduced may act differently in the new host,
* the genetic intelligence of the host may be disrupted and
* There is no way of knowing the overall long-term effects of GM foods on those who
consume them.
* It is believed that not enough testing is being done

Question 31

What is white/grey/industrial biotechnology?

Answer 31

– Industrial biotechnology involves practices that use living cells or component cells like enzymes, on a large scale to generate products and processes.

Question 32

What are the three generations of industrial processes?

Answer 32

Industrial processes
1st generation – fermentation using native organisms – wine /beer making & bakery products.
2nd generation – native or engineered enzymes / genes – textiles, paper & starches.
3rd generation – direct use of recombinant and engineered systems – plant, insect, and animal cell
cultures.

Question 33

What are enzymes?

Answer 33

natural proteins that chemically recognize, bind, and modify substrates.
Act as biological catalysts - speed up reactions without being changed or used
up. Action is specific. Enzymes work best at a particular range of pH and
temperature.

Question 34

How is industrial biotechnolgy used/applied?

Answer 34

MANUFACTURING – detergents, vitamins, bread, personal care products & cosmetics, textiles &
synthetic fabrics, paper, biodegradable plastics and containers, plastic films, food service ware,
food & beverage packaging, synthetic rubber (tyres), substitutes for plant products e.g., fructose
to replace sugar, medicines – antibiotics, biofuels, fuel ethanol.
* BIOREMEDIATION OF SOILS AND WATER TO REDUCE POLLUTION IMPACT e.g., oil eating bacteria.
* ENZYME TECHNOLOGY – used in baking, brewing, detergents, fermented products,
pharmaceuticals, textiles & leather processing.
* WASTE TREATMENT AND RECYCLING – biological organisms used in waste degradation.
* DATA GENERATION– genome information (gene banks) for e.g., cocoa research
* GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MICROORGANISMS/BACTERIA – used to manufacture medical products such as insulin, vit B2, antibiotics, hormones.
* Biocontrol of organisms e.g., mosquitoes – make male mosquitoes sterile to inhibit breeding.
* Biochemical testing & biomaterials for disease diagnostics – find replacements for defective
tissues & organs in the human body.
* Alternative energy – biofuels using fossil fuels & greenhouse gas emissions.

Question 35

what are the benefits of industrial biotech?

Answer 35

• Large scale production of new value-added products using bio- processes – organisms, cells & enzymes e.g., soap powders with enzymes, plastics, polymers, laminates.
• Replacement of harsh (toxic) chemicals used to manufacture some products e.g., cleaning agents.
• Environmental Sustainability – less toxicity, products are recyclable/ biodegradable.
• Enable greater and more efficient utilisation of renewable resources (energy, chemicals & materials)
• Fossil fuels can be replaced with the use of biomass.
• Introduction of biodegradable products to replace synthetics e.g., plastics.
• Reduce fossil fuel energy consumption – uses natural synthesis and biodegradation.
• Save costs and are more profitable because long term less wasteful use of materials and energy.
• Products are better performing, more durable and don’t persist after their useful life.
• Products are less toxic, more easily recyclable, and more biodegradable.
• Products are derived from renewable resources, as much as possible.

Question 36

What are some limitations of industrial biotechnology?

Answer 36

High start-up costs for new plants and machinery.
* lack of funding for industrial biotechnology.
* Lots of time needed for research & development.
* Petroleum products still available – no push to change over since the exhaustion of
petroleum seems to be a remote reality.
* Bio processing is still not as efficient & effective as chemical processing.
* Chemical Industries are moving toward environmentally friendly processes.

Question 37

What are some concerns of industrial biotechnology?

Answer 37

Bioethical issues; Societal/ public concerns – pros/cons.
* Violation of Codes of ethics with respect to good / bad of applications
* Resources may be diverted from food production.
* Environmental harm - processes may require large amounts of fresh water.
* Laboratory safety; food safety; bio safety
* Intellectual Property Rights and ownership by large corporations & the wealthy.

Question 38

What is marine/blue biotechnology?

Answer 38

– Marine biotechnology is the creation of products and processes from marine organisms through the application of molecular and cell biology. Use of bacteria, Cyanobacteria, micro/ macro
algae, fungi, sponges, seaweed, kelp, mussels

Question 39

Applications of marine biotechoolgy

Answer 39

Aquaculture & feed for aquaculture e.g., Salmon rearing
* Products - Cosmetics, drugs, health care, wellness supplements, food, biofuels, enzymes
* Pharmaceuticals (drugs) from marine products
* Bioremediation, biofuels & anti fouling systems – oil spills and waste oil clean up.
* Marine technologies – protein produced naturally in jelly fish used to monitor the activity of transgenic (altered) genes e.g., Cats with FIV.
* Medical devices

Question 40

Concerns of Marine biotech?

Answer 40

• Marine ecological harm
• Insufficient Bio Safety
• Poor Laboratory safety; food safety.
• Stringency of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)
• Societal/ public concerns

Question 41

What is red/medical biotechnology?

Answer 41

Manipulation of genetic material in a controlled environment, applied to research & manufacture of medical products such as pharmaceuticals, vaccines, antibiotics, and enzymes using genetic engineering and medical diagnostic.

Question 42

How is red biotech used/applied?

Answer 42

1. Manufacturing of treatment drugs
2. gene repair/ gene editing
3. Gene therapy
4. Stem cell research
5. DNA Fingerprinting
6. creation of personalized medicines-pharmaco-genomics
7. Tissue engineering
8. Disease diagnostics
9. Genetic testing

Question 43

Examples of genetically-engineered drugs

Answer 43

Anticoagulants (blood coagulation problems);
- Antivirals (viral & autoimmune diseases, HIV, Ebola, influenza).
- Antibiotics (bacterial infections);
- Anti-inflammatory (pain, inflammation & fever)
- Immune modulators (inflammatory diseases, rheumatoid arthritis) colony stimulating factors;
erythropoietin; Factor VII; growth factors; interferons and interleukins.
Vaccines and antigen for immunization manufactured using recombinant DNA to produce antibodies.
Insulin – used to control blood sugar levels, used for the treatment of diabetes.
growth hormones - produced using recombinant DNA, erythropoietin. Used to treat dwarfism

Question 44

What is pharmaco-genomics?

Answer 44

Pharmaceuticals – Pharmaco-genomics (personalized medicines) – The genetic inheritance of
an individual is affected by one’s response to drugs. This has led to the design and
production of drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup. Dose and medicine selection is based on the persons genome profile. Applications in cancer, cardiovascular
disorders, depression, diabetes, attention deficit, HIV, asthma.

Question 45

What is gene repair/gene editing?

Answer 45

• The process by which a cell uses a series of special enzymes to repair
  mutations (changes) in DNA and restore it to its original state. The DNA is constantly mutating and being repaired. This repair process is controlled by special genes. DNA repair ensures the survival of a species by enabling its parental DNA to be inherited as faithfully as possible by offspring. It also preserves the health of an individual.

Question 46

What is gene therapy?

Answer 46

an experimental technique that modifies a person’s genes to treat or cure a disease
by inserting one or more corrective genes, designed in the laboratory, into the genetic material of the
patient’s cells. Deliberate alteration of a selected DNA sequence in a living cell. Mainly used to correct genetic disorders (hereditary conditions) or diseases by replacing a defective gene
– disease causing gene a with healthy copy of the gene. e.g treatment of sickle cell disease.
Modification of a person’s genes to treat or cure disease can be achieved by: -
1. Replacement of a disease-causing gene with a healthy copy of the gene.
2. Inactivating or “knocking out” a disease-causing gene that is not functioning properly.
3. Introducing a new or modified gene into the body to help fight/ treat the disease.

Question 47

What is DNA fingerprinting?

Answer 47

• a chemical test that shows the genetic makeup of a person or other living things.
  Althea Richardson – UWI Tutor Foun 1210
  A lab technique used to determine the probable identity of a person based on the sequencing of
  certain regions pf the human DNA, that are unique to an individual.
  Used in situations such as criminal investigations, paternity testing, or other forensic applications. Two
  DNA fingerprints are matched with one another.

Question 48

What is tissue engineering?

Answer 48

used for repair, improvement, replacement and restoration of different biological tissues.
used for bone repair, skin grafts, cartilage replacement, cardiac, pancreas & vascular tissue repair, and small arteries repair.
Humans - cells can be used to replace diseased tissue or produce specific body parts such as muscle cells, skin cells and nerve cells & organs e.g., bladders.

Question 49

What is disease diagnostics?

Answer 49

Diagnostic tools are used to study genetic material of viruses & bacteria e.g. Asian flu: COVID
19, dengue fever. Diagnostic tools are faster, more efficient, and useful when early detection is not
possible.
- study the genetic material of viruses and bacteria to determine whether a disease is caused by disease-producing agents.
- understand how genetic factors contribute to human disease.
- The research information is used to develop diagnostic tests that speed up detection and identification of a disease so that an appropriate treatment can be developed. e.g., HIV,
COVID 19 - Diagnostic Rapid Test kits and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) tests,
Avian flu & Dengue strains detection.
- Used to manufacture medicines, vaccines, and treatment – genetically engineered drugs

Question 50

What is genetic testing?

Answer 50

Genetic testing, also called DNA testing to identify changes in genes, chromosomes, or
proteins in your body. Used for disease or to determine ancestry.

Question 51

What is Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ARTs)?

Answer 51

ART techniques involve the manipulation of eggs, sperm, or embryos to increase the likelihood of a successful pregnancy.

Artificial insemination – used in cases of male impotence (erectile dysfunction).
* In vitro fertilization – in glass (test tube) fertilization (IVF),
* egg /sperm donation,
* Pre –natal diagnosis - either used to create designer babies (babies with preferred
characteristics) or to determine the possibility of Downs syndrome.

Question 52

What are stem cells?

Answer 52

Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different cell types.
Undifferentiated, unspecialized, primitive cells (raw human materials) are used to differentiate or become specialized cells of the body tissue such as muscle, skin, or corneal tissue (eyes)
Cells can renew themselves for long periods through cell division.
- they can be induced to become cells with special functions under certain conditions.

Question 53

Where are stem cells harvested from?

Answer 53

Cells are harvested from:
1. Embryonic stem cells from in vitro fertilization. 2. Amniotic fluid. 3. Adults
Embryonic Stem cells are totipotent -they can replace all cells in the body.
Totipotency – the ability of a cell to regenerate to form a whole new individual.
Amniotic stem cells are pluripotent – they can replace many cell types.
2. Adult stem cells are the least potent. They can be taken from
▪ Tissues of the brain, skin, and bone marrow cells.

Question 54

What are examples of common genetic disorders/diseases?

Answer 54

incorrect protein e.g., sickle cell disease, cystic fibrosis, colour blindness, Tay –Sachs disease
* incorrect no of chromosomes which should normally be 46 – 23 pairs per cell.
Down’s Syndrome - 47 (extra # 21)
Turners Syndrome - 45 (missing an X chromosome)
Klinefelter’s Syndrome - (XXY instead of XY)

Question 55

What are the benefits of medical biotechnology?

Answer 55

Better understanding of human development

Chronic disease treatment e.g., cancer, diabetes

Correction of birth defects and inheritance diseases

Testing of new drugs and treatments – biomedicine -

Replacement of damaged cell tissue – gene therapy/ gene editing

Question 56

Concerns of medical biotechnology

Answer 56

Ethical – “playing God” – cost of life in using embryonic stem cells; may result in unnatural
mixing of genes; use of humans as clinical trial subjects may put lives at risk. Is human
cloning acceptable?

• Social – equal availability & access to cloning technology for all, costly, potential
  psychological effects for cloned human – parentless and deindividualized identity of person/s; bioterrorism potential to create new super bugs, infectious viruses, or toxins for
  which there is no cure.
• Legal – government or private support for research funding; licensing of genetic inventions governed by IPR issues. The use and ownership of private genetic information.
• Controversies over the human genome Project – genome sequencing,
• Safety – Laboratory bio safety – biohazards, medical safety – side effects, technician safety -
  exposure (working with organisms with unknown levels of potency).

Question 57

General ethical concerns of biotechnology? (legal, socio-economic, ethical and sovereignty issues.)

Answer 57

Biotechnology affects legal, socio-economic, ethical and sovereignty issues.
➢ Scientists should make the implications/ possible effects, impacts of their work
public.
➢ Should the public and their representations be allowed to make the final
decisions on applications.
➢ The public should be scientifically literate and sensitised enough to understand
the implications of this “new” technology.
➢ Public health & safety e.g., allergies, side effects and other health issues should
be considered.
➢ Dangers of release of toxins etc into the environment, from manufacturing.
➢ Legal implications – should genetic information be public and not protected by
IPRs?
➢ Can genetically modified organisms become a new economic weapon?
➢ Harvesting of embryo stem cells results in the death of embryos – what are the
moral and ethical considerations?
➢ Are humans “playing God” – is this the crossing of moral principles and
boundaries?
➢ Biotechnological research is mainly owned and controlled by large corporations
and organisations who fund the research. Is this a new world order being
developed?