Module 1

Question 1

West African movements to the Americas

Answer 1

It is believed that Africans travelled to the Americas an estimated 300 years before Columbus . It is suggested that the Egyptians and the Mandingo people of the Mail Empire would have made the voyage to the Americas according to historian, Van Sertima. The effect of this was an influence on the cultural, social and economic development of the Indigenous civilizations of the New World.

It is thought that Africans would have been able to make this voyage due to North Atlantic Trade Winds and their ability to build ships such as lashed canoes (catamarans) and papyrus reed boats. These trade winds would later be used by Christopher Columbus in his voyage as they function similar to a jet stream as they provide a reliable source of wind energy for ships travelling from east to west (travelling approximately 60 miles per day).

This theory was tested Norwegian scientist and explorer, Thor Heyerdahl in 1970 when he successfully used the Ra II , which was a copy of an ancient Egyptian papyrus vessel, and sailed from Safi, Morocco to Barbados in 57 days.

Question 2

Evidence of presence of Africans in the America’s in the pre-Columbus era

Answer 2

1. The Trade Winds
   The trade winds and currents in the Atlantic Ocean could explain why the Africans were able to reach the Americas. These trade winds and currents are continuous throughout the year, however it is difficult to navigate them.

2)Columbus’ journal entries
African historians argue that Columbus knew about the trade winds because of knowledge given to him by the Africans from their voyage. It is this knowledge that gave him the confidence to travel across the ocean.
In addition, Columbus also mentions that in Hispaniola, the Taino people told him that their spears were given to them by black men. He then had the spear tips, which covered in a metal which the natives called guanine, sent for testing and it was discovered that they consisted of 32 parts (18 gold, 6 silver, 8 copper) which was identical to what was being forged in African Guiana
Columbus also wrote about the presence of black people in the Americas as stated by his son Ferdinand Columbus who mentions that his father saw several black people in the Americas when he arrived

3)Oral records
This were the first piece of evidence used by Van Sertima and were sourced from the Mali people (Griots-traditional historians and masters of orature(oral literature) in Africa. He believes that these first trips occurred as ships became trapped in the Trade Winds and currents. As he notes, “[They] have stories about their king, Abubakari, the second…who set out on a great expedition of large boats. None of the boats returned to Mali”

This story would have taken place in the early 1300’s and was commissioned due to King Abubakari II ‘s desire to explore the Atlantic Ocean based on knowledge received from the Arabs. The first expedition consisted of several ships laden with goods, people, animals and luxury items. When only one ship returned, he decided to lead the second expedition himself but he too did not return, leaving his brother Mansa Musa (Musa I) in charge.

5)Archeological Evidence
This evidence is important because it is tangible. These evidence include: the pyramids, the stone heads, skeleton, the loom and the Mayan calendar.

-Historians believe that the step pyramids found in the Americas can be traced to that of ancient Babylon and Egypt. In Egypt they progressed from the stepped pyramid of Djaser, to finished product at Giza. At La Venta, which was the location of the first pyramid in the Americas, the pyramid found was a fully finished one. There was no sign of progressive learning, which meant that they had to learn from someone

-Another great find in February 1975 by a Smithsonian Institution team was two Negroid male skeletons. These skeletons were found in the U.S. Virgin Islands in a grave that was used and abandoned long before Columbus arrived. The soil was dated to be about 1250 A.D. The teeth showed “dental mutilation characteristics of early Africans cultures.” They died here before Columbus and they were buried here before the arrival of Columbus.

-it has also been found that many Indigenous Societies in South and Central America had some art form indicating that of African 4 teachings. In the Mayan communities such as Tres Zapotes and La Venta in Mexico, for example. colossal stone heads were found that according to Dr. Michael Stirling. “were bold and amazingly Negroid in nature”. All of the stone heads had features that indicated an African presence such as the fullness of the lips. the bread fleshly nose, the lines of the cheek and jaw and the Ethiopian type braids.

-This was a machine used to make cloth. Loom of Horizontal types appeared in Peru. It was found to be identical with a horizontal loom depicted in an Egyptian tomb. When the four (4) vertical looms appeared in Peru, it was identical with those found in a tomb at Thebes, the sacred capital of the black King. Both the New World and the Old World looms had the same two working

-The next indication was the calendar the Mayan people used based on the moon and sun. The calendar was quite accurate and very similar to the Egyptian calendar. Professor Wiener believed that Mayan Mathematics corresponded with the number system of the Bambaras of Guinea. Both people organized their year into 366 days with 12 months of 30 days and each added 5 days to every year. Both used those excess 5 days for worship and relaxation.

4)BOTANICAL EVIDENCE
From civilizations such as Mali, Songhay and Eas ‘came principal American foods. The cotton seeds, banana plant, bottle gourd, jack beans and the West African yam all have African origins and they had suddenly appeared in the Americas without explanation. Arab merchants brought cotton cloth to Europe about 800 A.D. When Columbus discovered America in 1492, he found cotton growing in the Bahama Islands. By 1500, cotton was known generally throughout the world.

5)Linguistic evidence
-Language: It is evident that the West African languages and South American languages are similar. These similarities can be traced to common root words.
These differences are too close to occur so frequently to be coincidence. For example, The Mayan word for marketplace was Tanquazro which was closely linked to the West African word tangozmao meaning trader.

-Writing skills: Another indication was the writing system used in the Americas called Micmac Hieroglyphs. When comparing; this style of writing to the simpler cursive form of Egyptians hieroglyphic, called hieratic, over half were found similar. Closer examination revealed the meanings assigned to these signs

Question 3

Major Criticisms of the African evidence

Answer 3

1) Archeological evidence
-Not all historians are convinced that the stone heads are actually negroidic in nature. Michael Coe (1983) felt that the artist craving the sculptures did not have appropriate tools to make them smaller. Bernal (1965) argue that the sculptures were really of a human jaguar combination

-Rossum (1996) argued that there is no conclusive evidence that the skeletons found are from Africans because the studies done had compared the skeletons to modern old world people. Some historians argue that the Indigenous People came to the region from Asia. There is no conclusive evidence that black people (Africans) were not among them.

2)Botanical evidence
Critics argue that most of the plants found in the Americas that were of West African origins could have come to the region by way of bird droppings and
ocean currents. There is little evidence that Africans came to the region and brought these crop

3)Michael Coe (1983) who studied the Aztec and other indigenous societies
disagree with Van Sertima Thesis. He argued that Africanist historians such as Weiner and Sertima are really undermining the accomplishments made by the advanced indigenous people when they argue that the Africans had somehow influenced their social and political system. Van Sertima’s thesis is seen as undermining the achievements made by the Mesoamericans (such as the Maya, Aztec ete).

5) Other theorists such as Gabrieal Haslip-Viera, Bernard Ortiz de Montellano
and Warren Barbour (1997) argue along the lines of Coe that Afrcanist
theorists are robbing Native American cultures.

6) Oral evidence and Columbus diary entries
It this form of recording evidence can be seen as unreliable as the story it is passed down through the generations.

Question 4

Who were the Norse/The Viking ?

Answer 4

The term, “Viking”, is a collective one that has been used in history to refer to a larger group of Icelandic people who shared different cultures but still maintained some commonalities. This diverse group comprised many individual cultural groups among which were Danes and Norwegians but they were united under one common language called Old Norse.

They were militaristic people who raided mainland Europe and Britain in the period 793AD-1066 and while it is true that military conquest was an important part of their society, it is also true to note that they also possessed many of the other attributes of society,
such as crafts, leisure activities and political systems.

The Vikings did not leave behind written records and historians, therefore, believe that apart from carved inscriptions on stones (called runestones), their society did not rely on written records. Much of their history
was passed on in oral form via the medium of oral sagas.

Question 5

When did the Norse travel to the Americas?

Answer 5

It is believed that the Norse came to the Americas in the late 10th Century.

The Icelandic Sagas (The Saga of the Greenlander and the Saga of Erik the Red) suggests that the first Norse or European to arrive in the Americas was Leif Erikson (the son of Erik the Red who was the founder of the first Norse settlement in Greenland) who step foot in the Americas (modern day Canada) approximately half a millennium before Christopher Columbus.

The sagas state that Erikson was on his way to Greenland to spread Christianity and was likely blown off course and landed in North America. He created a settlement in “Vinland”. The evidence suggest that the Norse did not stay for a long period. The exact reason is unknown.

Question 6

Verbal Evidence of the Nordic Presence

Answer 6

These sagas consist of oral accounts which spoke of the deeds and achievements of Vikings in history. The two best known sagas, that have survived and speak directly of their explorations, are the Greenlanders’ Sage and the Saga of Erik the Red.

Most important is their account of a land called ‘Vinland’ which, if found to be true, corresponds to the lands of the Americas. Here, the sagas claim that the Vikings
interacted and conducted trade with the native people they found in these regions.

The trade would have taken place in the period 1050 to 1350. The sagas are, therefore, important historical
artifacts that have formed the basis of the revisionist interpretation concerning the ‘discovery’ of the Americas by a group other than the Europeans.

The transcription of these important Viking sagas began about A.D. 1070 with the cleric Adam of Bremen, who took down the account from the king of Denmark, Svein Estridsson.

The information in that account hinted to the existence of the lands of the Americas as well as to the fact that these lands were ‘discovered’ by the Icelandic people long
before the Europeans.

Similarly, the idea of Vinland emerged in the Book of the Icelanders which was published between 1122 and 1133 and which contained extensive accounts about the history of the Icelandic people. Again, it made mention about the land of Vinland which the Icelandic people (Vikings) had allegedly reached.

The point was elaborated further in a text by a Danish writer, Carl Christian Rafn, who in 1837 published in Copenhagen, ‘Antiquitates Americanae’, in which he argued that the sagas provided definite evidence that the Vikings had in fact come upon North America 500 years before Columbus.

This assertion has led to historical enquiry that continues to this present day and which seeks, always, ‘hard’ physical evidence for verification.

In seeking their ‘hard’ evidence, historians have meticulously analysed the sagas. From these sagas the accounts of Vinland date the discovery of this land to about AD1000.

Historians and archaeologists are today convinced that there is some validity in the accounts of the arrival of
these people in the Americas about 500 years before Columbus. The sagas have, therefore, been extensively studied for the evidence that they could give concerning this historical revisionist interpretation.

From these sagas, the evidence that had emerged revolved around information given about the type of flora (wild wheat, maple trees) and fauna that was found in
Vinland.

By studying these accounts, contemporary scientists have today been able to link the various parts of the saga to particular geographical and climatic zones in North America.

Question 7

Criticism of the Sagas

Answer 7

(1) The Sagas are often criticized for being fantasy stories. This is because these were oral stories which were recorded in the 1200s about incidents that occurred in the late 900s and early 1000s. Hence, these stories were recorded 200 years after they occurred. They might have been altered significantly by the time they were recorded.

(2) The Sagas are vague as to the whereabouts of Vinland and to date “Vinland” has not been discovered.

(3) The Sagas are not precise as to the time frame when the Norse arrived, the length of their stay in North America, how they settled in the Americas and reason
for their departure from the Americas. This means that historians have to speculate.

Question 8

Archeological evidence of the Nordic Presence in the Americas- L’anse aux Meadows

Answer 8

The main archaeological evidence that support Nordic visit to the Americas was the discovery of L’Anse aux Meadows in the 1960s by Norwegian explorer Helge Ingstad.

It is located at the northernmost tip of the Great Norther Peninsula in modern day Newfoundland in Canada and has been carbon dated to approximately 990-1050 CE.

The structure that has been found at L’Anse aux Meadows was similar to those buildings that were found in Norway in the year 1000. This would include the placement of the doors and windows, fireplace and interior walls.

It is important because it provided a tangible evidence of Nordic visit to the Americas and can give a clear indication as the time period that the Norse arrived.

It is believed that in year 1000, L’Anse aux Meadows has several forest areas near to that were convenient for boat-building, house-building and iron extraction. Hence, it would be that as soon as the Norse repaired their ships, they left.

The discovery of butternuts and butternut wood at L’ Anse aux Meadows was significant because butternuts grew in the interior of Canada (in New Brunswick). This would suggest that the Norse travelled into the interior of Canada.

Several items were found at L’Anse aux Meadows were of Nordic Origin including coins, stone oil lamps, a whetstone, bronze fastening pin, nails, bone knitting needle and a spindle. Some of these, including the needle and spindle, could suggest that there were women among them.

It is likely that the Norse hunted animals such as wolf, fox, birds and bears to survive.

Question 9

Criticism of L’ anse aux Meadows

Answer 9

It has been argued that several different group of people might have settled at L’Anse aux Meadows. Hence, there is no conclusive evidence that the Norse were the ones who created the settlement. British archaeologist, Julian D, Richards (2005) argue that it is highly unlikely that the Norse had sufficient resources to construct a string of settlements as the ones discovered at L’Anse aux Meadows.

The strong structure of the settlement would have suggested that the Norse might have spent some time in the Americas, however, there is no specific evidence to show how long they were in the region.

The lack of vines at L’Anse aux Meadows would mean that it is not “Vinland” as stated in the Saga of Erik the Red. Hence, it can be argued that Vinland is yet to be discovered.

In rebuttal, many have argued that these distorted stories may have been slight exaggerations that were made by the early Viking explorers, like Leif, who did so to encourage further settlement, a ruse that Columbus himself used later on to encourage more Iberians to
come out to the ‘New World’.

Question 10

Intro to the Portuguese and West African Contact

Answer 10

Before the 15th century (1400s), Europeans were neither economically nor politically able to set up and maintain long- 4 distance trading relationships outside of Europe.

They received all the goods they needed from trades in the Black and Mediterranean Seas led by the Arabs. The Arabs enjoyed a monopoly.

The trades with the Arabs became restrictive and there were rumors of the discovery of gold and spices in West Africa. This produced an interest in West Africa and also finding a route to reach the East.

Question 11

Why was Portugal the first to explore West Africa?

Answer 11

• Location of Portugal
  It was located at the southwestern tip of Europe which was directly above West Africa
• Isolation from European Conflicts
  Portugal was not trapped in a war with the Moors like Spain and had expelled the Moors from as early as 1250.
• Isolation from European diseases
  They were also isolated from European diseases such as the Black Plague
• The capital of Henry the Navigator
  He funded several expeditions to West Africa and created schools to train seamen, ship-builders and Cartography (map designing)
• Natural seamen who were willing and ready to explore the open seas

Question 12

Portuguese Exploration Of West Africa

Answer 12

Prince Henry the Navigator initiated the search of the West African coast. Due to his efforts, by 1460 the Portuguese had explored the coast of Africa all the way to Sierra Leon. Bartolomeu Dias was able to reach the Cape of Good Hope on the 12 March 1488. By 1498, Vasco de Gama had rounded the Cape of Good Hope.

Trade with the coastal West African middlemen included cowry shells and hardware (cooking pots and brass pans and iron rods) in exchange for the gold, slaves, ivory, pepper, gum Arabic, and ostrich feathers.

The Portuguese purpose was not to colonize, but to establish a secure trading relationship. They traded on African terms. Since there was some resistance to
European infiltration, and the coastline was unsuitable to large boats, the Portuguese often based themselves on Islands off the coast of the continent and at coastal ports.

Question 13

Economic reasons for Portugal’s involvement in West Africa

Answer 13

• To find a sea route to the East:
  They wanted to find a sea route around Africa so that they could have reached the East. They refused to travel by land because it took long, it was restrictive and dangerous. In 1488, Bartholomew, a Portuguese was able to discover this route after passing the Cape of Good Hope. It was in 1498, that the journey to the East was first successful.
• To find precious stones and Gold in Africa:
  In the early 1400s, Prince Henry had traveled to Africa to to fight the Moors. He reported to his men and his students that he had gained sighting of numerous caravans laden with gold, silver and precious stones. Men who wanted to gain wealth quickly gravitated to his teachings and this pushed them to travel to the region.
• In the 1400s, Spain and Portugal wanted gold for their currency (bullionism)

Question 14

Social reasons for Portugal’s involvement in West Africa

Answer 14

• Skilled men:
  Countries such as Portugal and Spain had many men who were skilled
  at sailing. This was fostered by their love of the sea. Since they had the skill to ,
  explore, this pushed their actions along the African coast. Furthermore, their skills were advanced by the numerous schools established by Prince Henry the Navigator.
• Early promise of settlements:
  There was that desire to expand their influence around the region and so the fact that there was a promise of early settlement meant that the Europeans were eager to explore Africa. African coastal islands such as Azores and Cape Verde Island and along with Madeira became great area for trading posts and could have led them straight down the African Coast, given the extent that they could have picked up the winds and currents circulating the seas.
• Slaves:
  They wanted slaves and this was fostered by the developing Trans-Saharan
  Slave Trade. Though this was not very popular then, they had captured numerous moors and African men who were forced to work sugar plantations, as in the Spanish in Azores and the Canary Islands, and in domestic units. It was this factor that led Las Casa to persuade the men in the Americas to use Africans in the 1500s.

Question 15

Political reasons for Portuguese’s involvement in West Africa

Answer 15

The emergence and consolidation of nation states: Up to the 1500s, numerous
nations had gained power and had emerged as strong political influences. Spain
had just become a reality with the combination of Aragon and Castile. By the
1250, Portugal had become an independent state with its own language. These
countries had strong desires in overseas trade and exploration. By venturing into
Africa, they could have maintained their power by extending their influence and
borders.

Question 16

Religious reasons for Portuguese’s involvement in West Africa

Answer 16

1) To spread Christianity: especially after 1492, with the fall of Granada: Spain was very much co-occupied with her struggles against the Moors and in 1492 she had finally beaten them. Both Spain and Portugal. even before 1492, were willing to extend their religion into Africa. Each of them had Christian monarchs who
wanted religious supremacy.

2) There was also fear that Islam would be spread in Africa. The Moors were Islamic. However, there were hardly any Islamic influence in West Africa when the
Portuguese arrived.

3) To find Prestor John: The legend of Prestor John was widespread in Europe and this belief was kept alive from the 12th to the 17th Century. Christian states such as
Britain, France, Portugal and Spain were excited about such a “mythical” Christian King that wanted the same view as them, religious supremacy of Christianity.

Question 17

Why did the Portuguese remain in the West African coast?

Answer 17

When the Portuguese arrived in West Africa, they remained on the coast for numerous reasons:

• They were unable to effectively evade the plethora of diseases that were familiar to interior parts of West Africa, Mosquitoes were vicious and the Europeans suffered from yellow fever and malaria. The heat was a problem.
• The inland African states were often hostile. Many Africans had heard of the capturing of Africans on the coast and had taken steps to protect their cities. Some of the African states had firearms due to their trades with the Arab and were powerful.
• It was very costly to maintain European troops in the African environment. The Portuguese wanted to stay close to their coastal colonies — Azores and Madeira
• There was much profit to be made on the coast due to the creation of forts and the capturing of African slaves. There were several African villages on the coast that could be raided.
• The Portuguese did not intend to colonize the West African states and so did not need to go into the interior of West Africa.
• Missionary activities in the inland states were often short-lived. Klein (2010) mentions that when the Jesuit Missionaries visited states such as Kongo, Benin, Oye, and Ndongo, there teachings were resisted, and the missionaries were expelled with these states returned to their traditional religious beliefs.

Question 18

Impact of Portuguese Involvement in West Africa

Answer 18

1) Increase in Trade
European trade with the coastal Africans attracted many Africans from the interior and diverted the flow of trade across the Sahara to the Atlantic Coast of West Africa. This shift contributed to the decline of the Sudanese states (Ghana, Mali and Songhai) and a decline in the Trans-Sahara Trades. It also led to the decline trades with the Arabs.

2) Cultural
The Portuguese left their names of places all along the West African coast–Cape Verde, Cape Palmas, Sierra Leone, El Mina. They also left their slave castles which often changed hands in the battles between the European states for control of the slave trade.

3) Introduction of new crops
They introduced many new world crops into West Africa and expanded trading opportunities with poor African states. E.g. The Portuguese introduced Maize to Africa and it became a staple food for many Africans.

4) Employment
The trading of slaves on the coast of West African provided employment opportunities for African slave traders and farmers.

5) Spread of Christianity in West Africa
Many African leaders became Christians to continue trades with the Europeans. The Portuguese were able to convert the King of Congo to Christianity in 1495. The King changed his name to Joao I. This also actively prevent the spread of Islam in West Africa up to the 1500s.

6) Expansion of Slavery
Slavery was a natural aspect of African society. It was argued that many of the African leaders who sold Africans into slavery were of the view that slaves
would be treated well because it was customary to treat slaves well in African society. The trading of slaves expanded African slavery and paved the way for the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade.

7) Conflict between African states
Due to increased trades with the Europeans for firearm and slaves. Many African
slaves became powerful and were able to take control of weaker African states.

Question 19

Intro to Spanish Settlement in the Caribbean

Answer 19

Spanish settlement in the Caribbean had its genesis in 1492 when Christopher Columbus laid his eyes on the Bahamas on his first voyage to the region. The sight of land gave him confidence that he had reach “the Indies”.

One of Columbus’ ship, the Santa Maria, thereafter, crashed on the coast of Hispaniola, modern day the Dominican Republic and Haiti, where he first made contact with the indigenous people in the Caribbean and created a fort.

The Caciques in Hispaniola were so pleased by the seemingly benevolent strangers that they provided them the timber to create a fort called “La Navidad”.

This the first European settlement in the Caribbean. It could not have been the first European settlement in the Americas because we know of the arrival of the Norse in AD1000 and they settled at L’Anse Aux Meadows.

Question 20

Columbus’ voyages to the Caribbean

Answer 20

Columbus abandoned 39 members of his crew on Hispaniola and returned to Spain with news of
reaching Asia (the East). These men were advised to find as much gold as possible. He would
then make 3 other voyages to the Caribbean.

1st voyage — 1492. Columbus explored the Bahamas, the northern coast of Cuba and landed in Hispaniola.

2nd voyage — 1493-1496. Columbus took to the Caribbean at least 1200 seamen, colonists, clergy and officials. He also brought with him horses, cattle, sheep, goats, poultry and sugar cane from the Canary Islands. He explored islands such as Dominica and Guadeloupe and named the islands of Montserrat, Antigua and Nevis. Upon reaching Hispaniola, he discovered that the 38 men that he left on the island were killed by the Indians. The first settlement in Hispaniola was burnt to the ground. The indigenous people blamed their deaths on their desire to kidnap
indigenous women.

3rd voyage — 1498-1500. Columbus started his journey from the Cape Verde Islands, off the coast of West Africa, which was colonized by Portugal. This put him in the best position to reach Trinidad and the
mainland (South America).

4th voyage — 1502-1504. Columbus made his final voyage to the Caribbean. His last 3 trips were deemed utter failures because he had not reached the east and he had not found sufficient mineral wealth as
was desired by Spain. Spain was particularly interested in mineral wealth due to the economic practice of bullionism (using gold as currency) and the drainage of their treasury following the wars with
the Moors that ended in 1492 with the fall of Granada. Columbus, nonetheless, convinced the Spanish monarchs to give him one last chance to find the East because there must be a route beyond the islands. A route did not exist. Columbus died as a complete
failure.

Question 21

Importance of Columbus’ voyages

Answer 21

It is argued that Columbus did not discover the Caribbean and that any proposition of this is Eurocentric. This is because, the Caribbean and the Americas, was already inhabited by several groups of people when Columbus arrived.

However, he did create “access” to the Americas and so his voyages were important for several reasons:

(a) he created permanent contact between the Caribbean and Europe (initially Spain and then other European nations);

(b) it paved the way for the Spanish colonization of the Americas:

(c) it ensured the exploration of the Americas as more explorers came with hopes of finding mineral wealth and creating new colonies:

(d) it led to the creation of several Spanish settlements and shaped the socio-economic and political of the Caribbean up to the 1600s

(e) it sparked the explorative spirits of Europeans because it dispelled several European beliefs about ocean voyages (those being, flat earth, falling off the edge of the sea and ship-eating monsters).

Question 22

The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Answer 22

After the discovery of the Americas, Spain was quick to sign the Treaty of Tordesillas with Portugal. The treaty was important because it effectively gave Spain exclusive claim to the Americas.

• Spain created a monopoly in the Caribbean (and the Americas) and argued that all lands in the Americas fell under the Spanish crown.
• It further argued that all peoples, wealth and trades in the Americas are to exclusively benefit Spain and no other country in Europe. While this ended conflicts with Portugal, it caused resentments with other European nations. Spain grew wealthy over time and used its wealth to create a massive military in Europe and naval fleet.

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Question 23

Spanish Settlements in the Caribbean

Answer 23

Notwithstanding Spanish claims for all the lands in the Caribbean, Spain settled only on the larger islands in the Greater Antilles. These being Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba.

• The first settlement was created in Hispaniola with some 300 Spanish men in 1502. The number of settlers increased to 8000 Spanish men by 1509
• Settlements were then created in Jamaica and Puerto Rico in 1509
• Settlements were created in Cuba in 1511
• Moved to the mainlands (Mexico) in 1518

Spain was a weak colonizing force. Not only did she fail to occupy several islands in the Caribbean due to her lack of manpower and support system to maintain colonies, but she actively ignored the islands. By this, no steps were taken to monitor the unsettled islands, create forts or develop them. There was no effective occupation.

Question 24

Reasons for Spain Abandoning the Lesser Antilles

Answer 24

ABANDONING THE LESSER ANTILLES

The Lesser Antilles was abandoned for several reasons:

(a) the lack of mineral wealth in these small islands

(b) the presence of aggressive indigenous people (Kalinagos);

(c) the inability of Spain to inhabit these islands due to the refusal of many Spanish people to migrate to the Americas. Spain would eventually sponsor several Spanish people to migrate to the Americas and this
included giving them land to farm and create settlements. Despite this sponsorship, many Spanish people went to Cuba and Hispaniola due to a “gold rush” and the creation of trading posts. Spain also expunged several criminals to the Caribbean who went to Hispaniola.

(d) the development of commercial activities in the larger colonies attracted more attention to these areas.

Question 25

Economic Activities of the Spanish Colonists

G.R.A.T

Answer 25

The economic activities of the Spanish colonists in the Caribbean up to the 1600s was vital for the maintenance of the Spanish monopoly in the Americas.

1) Gold mining — The main economic activity in the initial stages of Spanish colonization in the Caribbean is gold production. The Spanish were obsessed with gold because the Spanish monarch depended greatly on gold as currency (bullionism). Indigenous labour was used predominately to mine gold. The indigenous labourers had to search for gold and other mineral
wealth (silver and pearl) by risking their lives in dark deep caves. So important was gold, that Spanish settlers had to register to get licenses to mine for gold. In 1512, there was a gold rush in Hispaniola when some quantity of gold was discovered, but it was short-lived.

2) Ranching- On Columbus’s second voyage to the Caribbean, he brought with him several animals such as pigs, horses, cattle and sheep. These animals reproduced rapidly because they were larger than the indigenous animals, they had no natural predators
in the region, there were no diseases in the Caribbean (such as cattle diseases that were in Europe) and they had sufficient land space and grasslands to graze. In Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, pigs and cattle multiple so rapidly that they started to run wild in the mountains. The Spanish settlers were able to create circular
landholdings to keep animals. This led to the production of beef, pork and mutton which were sold to ships passing the Spanish colonies. The fats from animals also led to the production of different by-products such as lard, tallow, candles and hides, most of which was sent back to Europe

3) Trading — Spanish colonists were keen to the idea of trading in the Caribbean, and this was easy because Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico became important trading posts in the Spanish American
Empire. It meant that ships passed these countries rapidly. Many small items, animal meat, manufactured goods and crops became important trades for residents in these colonies.

Trading was important because it ensured that Spain received revenues in the form of trade duties, import duties and import duties. So important was trades in the Spanish Caribbean (and the Spanish Colonial Empire) that it led to the creation of the House of Trade or Casa de Contratacién in Seville in 1503 which supervised trades in the Caribbean, collected duties and act as a court in cases of trade disputes. Eventually, the Casa became a political entity in the
Caribbean and developed into a supreme, advisory and executive body.

4) Agriculture — It became clear that the most profitable economic activity for the Spanish settlers was agricultural production. The colonists were restricted from planting crops that would compete with Spain in commercial enterprises such as wine, olive oil and other items. This meant that their focus was on sugar and tobacco production. Tobacco was naturally grown in the Caribbean and was used by the
indigenous people and so it flourished. However, tobacco was for domestic markets at first rather
than export. It was expanded by the English in the early 1600s.

Columbus was the first to take sugar cane to the Caribbean from the Canary Islands (a Spanish
colony on the coast of West Africa). He wrote to Queen Isabella that the Caribbean was the perfect
place for sugar production because it had continuous sunshine, abundant rainfalls and water, extended land space and there were no winters. By 1518, sugarcane was widely grown in Hispaniola and several mills were made to produced sugar. By 1523, Jamaica
and Puerto Rico expanded in sugar production due to the introduction of African slaves. They effectively paved the way for the plantation system in the Caribbean.

The initial actions of the Spanish set-in motion a deepening economic uniformity in the Caribbean. The insistence on planting cash crops such as sugar and tobacco meant that the region developed a history of planting cash crops, and this continued with the arrival of other Europeans in the 1600s.

Question 26

Mortality of the Spanish Colonists

Answer 26

In the initial stages of creating Spanish settlements in the Caribbean, the Spanish settlers suffered a high mortality rate. This was for several reasons:

1) Attacks from the indigenous people: Many of the Spanish settlers were killed by the indigenous people who expressed outrage when they were forced to work on plantations. Several rebellions were staged by the indigenous people, Spanish men were killed by poisoning and many indigenous people left Spanish men in caves to die.

2) Heat: The Caribbean had a continuous sunny climate, and the Spanish colonists were unfamiliar with the constant heat in the region. Many died from heat strokes.

3) Diseases: Although the Spanish people took with them a host of old-world diseases that rapidly killed the indigenous people and hastened their decimation, there was evidence that they too suffered from diseases that were already in the Caribbean. Tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever affected the Spanish settlers. Other diseases such as rabies and sexual transmitted diseases (which were already in the Caribbean) also killed Spanish men.

4) Lack of health care: No establish clinics or hospitals meant that the Spanish settlers did not have access to health care and succumbed to most of their inflictions.

5) Natural disasters: The Caribbean endured powerful storms and hurricanes even in the 1500s. This was not something that the Spanish settlers were accustomed to.

6) Unfamiliar landscape: In the initial stages of Spanish exploration, many deaths occurred from being lost and stranded. If ships crashed or ran aground in unfamiliar lands, then they would starve as it was unlikely that they would be discovered. Many Spanish explorers were lost in exploring the Caribbean and South America.

The Spanish settlers did not experience starvation because they relied on indigenous staple crops such as cassava, yam and com. They might have to adjust to the taste because they may not have been familiar with some, but they quickly adapt. They also brought several animals that multiplied rapidly because they had no natural predators.

Question 27

Mortality of the Indigenous People

Answer 27

There was a clash of culture between the Spaniards and the indigenous people the Greater Antilles. The Spanish effectively laid waste to the indigenous people and led to their destructions and genocide.

During the 1500s, the indigenous people in the Greater Antilles suffered a high mortality under Spanish colonization. By the mid-1500s, the Taino population dwindled significantly:

Bartolome de las Casa wrote in 1561 that, “There were 60,000 people living on this island when [ I arrived in 1508}, including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this?’

The decimation of the indigenous people in Caribbean were due to:

1) Open warfare with the Spanish:
There is ample evidence that the Taino people resisted Spanish colonization. When Columbus
returned to the Caribbean in 1493, the 39 men that he left were all killed and the fort, “La Navidad” was burnt to the ground. All belongings that the Spanish men had were taken by the Taino people. It became clear to the Spanish that the indigenous people were far from passive.

Warfare became necessary because many of the Spanish men wanted to force the indigenous people
to work in mines and provide them with food. Since the Spanish men did not take women with them, them encroached upon indigenous women which enraged the indigenous men. Spanish friars and priests that came to the Caribbean did not care much for the indigenous people. They considered them barbaric and unchristian and actively encouraged their enslavement.

There was open warfare between the Spanish and the Taino people. Columbus, however, was able to pacify them because the Taino weapons (clubs, wooden spears and bows) could not match Spanish armors and swords. The horses taken by Columbus gave them great mobility in battle. Furthermore, many of the Spanish men who came with Columbus were either skilled in warfare (from fighting the Moors) or criminals (who had no moral decorum).

Warfare with the Taino people in Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba were particularly gruesome because Taino leaders were gathered and executed in public. Some were burnt alive. In 1503, the Spanish led a
massacre in Hispaniola and in 1511, they led a massacre in Cuba. This led to the subjugation
of the indigenous people.

2) Organized enslavement:
Under Spanish control, the indigenous people were then forced to work on plantations planting sugarcane and other crops and in gold mines. Initially greater emphasis was placed on mining gold because of the obsession with finding mineral wealth. This was dangerous because the Tainos had to dig deep
into dark caves. Some drowned from underground currents, some were lost, and some were exposed to suffocation.

When it became clear that there was not much mineral wealth in the islands, labour was shift to
plantations and ranching. The indigenous people were forced to work in fields, rear animals and clear dense forest areas. Organized slavery was expanded with the introduction of the encomienda system,
which in theory was not a form enslavement, but in practice was. They died in great numbers because they were unfamiliar with organized labour and
were severely overworked and abused. Those who refused to work were beaten, tortured, fed to bloodhounds (aggressive dogs) or killed in sports.

3) Starvation:
The Taino suffered from starvation because they were unable to cultivate their own crops. The Spanish consumed most of the crops the indigenous people grew and because they were forced to work, they were unable to plant additional food for themselves. The animals that the Spanish took (cattle, sheep,
pigs and horses) grazed on indigenous crop and created more incidences of starvations. Several indigenous animals became extinct because pf the introduction of new animals that reshuffled the food chain.

4) European diseases:
Perhaps the greatest impact on the mortality of the indigenous people in the Caribbean were European diseases. The Europeans took with them several
deadly diseases such as smallpox, measles, chicken pox, whooping cough, influenza, cholera and bubonic plague. The Taino people had no natural immunity to
these diseases. The Spanish men did because they were familiar with the domestication of large animals and overseas exploration to West Africa which exposed them to these diseases. Of all these diseases the most impactful was smallpox because it had an incubation period of 2 weeks and so it could circulate among the indigenous people rapidly before symptoms are visible.

It is believed that a smallpox epidemic in Hispaniola in 1519 killed almost 90% of the surviving Taino. A similar outbreak of smallpox and measles killed
several indigenous people in Cuba.

5) Other actions taken by the Taino:
It can be argued that the resistance taken by the Taino
people could have hastened their own decimation,
though inevitable. Many Taino people committed
suicide and infanticide in large numbers by eating
poisonous plants (cassava) and consuming poisonous
liquids. Many of them pined away into the mountains
and died.

Question 27

The Encomienda System

Answer 27

When the Spaniards arrived, they felt that the indigenous people were uncivilized and pagan. It was therefore of vital importance for these people to
be socialized under the Christian faith.

The idea of an organize system of work was envisioned by Christopher Columbus.

The Encomienda system was based on the practice of transforming the indigenous people into Christians and during the process the Indians would have offered their services to the Spaniards. Under the encomienda system, the Indians were to be treated as subjects of the Spanish Government.

In theory, the Indians were not slaves and the encomienda system was based on explicit agreement.

Under the agreement, the Indians were to be paid for their services and during the process would be given rations of foods and clothing and would be taught Christian principles under the language spoken by the Spaniards. The Indians were under the Spanish jurisdiction and as such, were in the authority of the
Governor, who represented the King of Spain.

The governor would be the one who organized and distributed the Indians in groups. Encomiendas were given out accordingly.

Each Spanish colonist was given a group of Indians and they were to work for them in the provinces given to the Spanish for two generations. That is, the Spanish was entitled to give the encomienda to their heirs. Once this was done, the Indians will be returned to the control of the governor, who then had the right to grant them to other Spanish colonists.

The Queen did not take note of the activities in the Americas and the Spanish men started to ignore her rules. The Indians were beaten and forced to work for long hours on sugar and tobacco plantations, in silver and gold mines and on cattle ranches. It may be argued that this was done to an extent that the original reason for the creation of the encomienda system, which was to Christianize the Indians was ignored.

When religious leaders had come to Hispaniola, for instance, it was soon discovered that the Indians were not being taught any Christian values at all. Some religious leaders did not care and also took part in the system. However, it led to friars such as Bartholomew Las Casa and Antonio de Montesinos to speak
out against the system.

Question 28

Reasons for the Enslavement of the Indians

Answer 28

When the Spaniards had arrived in the Americas, it became increasingly clear that it was quite easy for them to enslave the Tanios. The Spaniards,
therefore, offered numerous reasons why it was necessary to enslave them:

(a) Historical evidence support that the Tanios were a very peaceful group of people. Most of their weapons were created for hunting and not war. When the Spaniards came with their horses and guns, it was
extremely easy for the indigenous people to be forced into slavery because they were unable to protect themselves.

(b) Most of the Spaniards felt that they were above planting and mining and claimed that they were Spanish of noble birth, hidalgos. It was therefore important for the Indians to work as slaves.

(c) The Spaniards were well accustomed to the practice of slavery. In the Canary Islands, located off the coast of West Africa, for example, the Spanish had used enslaved Africans to plant cane. It was therefore
inevitable that they would have preyed upon the weak.

(d) The Spaniards had come to exploit the resources of the New World. If this were the case, then the Spaniards had the right to enslave the Indians because they were ideal human resources. The plantations needed large supply of effective human resources.

(e) It was impossible for the Spanish men to transform the Indians into civilized Christians if they had their free-will. Slavery was a necessary part of the process so that the enslaved Indians were groomed into
Christian practices by force.

Question 29

The End of the Encomienda System

Answer 29

In 1512, the first attempt to protect the Indians came with the Laws of Burgos which was issued on the 27 th December 1512 by Ferdinand II. It was aimed at regulating the relationship between the Spanish and the Indians and to ensure that the Indians were treated fairly.

The Laws failed because the Spanish colonial leaders did not enforce them, and the King was too far away to take actions or monitor the Indians.

With the help of Bartholomew Las Casa who became very sympathetic to the Indians, the New Laws were passed in 1542 by the King of Spain to regulate the Spaniards who were enslaving the Indians. The laws
were still unpopular and were hardly enforced.

The encomienda system was eventually replaced with the repartimiento system which was similar in practise and principle. By then, a majority of the Indians in the Caribbean had died.

Las Casa encouraged the Spanish men to start import Africans in greater numbers and argued that the strength of one African was that of the strength of four Indians.

Question 30

The End of the Encomienda System

Answer 30

In 1512, the first attempt to protect the Indians came with the Laws of Burgos which was issued on the 27 th December 1512 by Ferdinand II. It was aimed at regulating the relationship between the Spanish and the Indians and to ensure that the Indians were treated fairly.

The Laws failed because the Spanish colonial leaders did not enforce them, and the King was too far away to take actions or monitor the Indians.

With the help of Bartholomew Las Casa who became very sympathetic to the Indians, the New Laws were passed in 1542 by the King of Spain to regulate the Spaniards who were enslaving the Indians. The laws
were still unpopular and were hardly enforced.

The encomienda system was eventually replaced with the repartimiento system which was similar in practice and principle. By then, a majority of the Indians in the Caribbean had died.

Las Casa encouraged the Spanish men to start import Africans in greater numbers and argued that the strength of one African was that of the strength of four Indians.

Question 31

The Arrival of Cortes

Answer 31

The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the major events of Spanish Colonization of the Americas.

Between 1519 and 1521, Hernan Cortes led the Spanish conquest of one of the greatest indigenous
civilizations in the Americas.

Cortez landed in Mexico in April of 1519. He arrived with 500 men, 16 horses and some cannons. He quickly formed a settlement at an area known
as Vera Cruz.

Question 32

Factors that lead to the conquest of the Aztecs

Answer 32

1) The time which Cortez entered into Tenochtitlan was significant. Prior to his arrival, the Aztec had seen many astrological phenomena which seemed to foreshadow the collapse of the empire itself. These omens of doom ranged from a comet seen in the daytime, seeing fire in the sky, lighting striking
a temple, a boiling lake to the destruction of two
temples. It created a feeling of doom and helplessness among the masses.

2) In addition to these omens of doom, Cortez arrived at harvest time, when the Aztec were generally not prepared for war. Many of the warriors in Aztec society were also farmers.

3) The Totonac and Tlaxcalans helped Cortez fight the Aztecs. These local tribes told the Spanish of the problems the Aztec were having, and provided the Spanish with food, soldiers and offer them translators.

4) The Aztecs believed that the god Quetzalcoatl was
going to return and destroy the Aztec empire.
Quetzalcoatl was seen as a man with light hair, and
light-colored skin, and it was thought by the Aztec, that Cortez was the returning Quetzalcoatl.

5) Outbreaks of epidemics also helped to weaken the
Aztecs. A majority of the Aztec warriors were killed by
smallpox.

6) The superior weaponry of the Spanish compared to
Aztec warriors.

7) The religious ritual of human sacrifice was feared among the people of Central Mexico. First, killing thousands of people, whether they were people within their own society or from neighbouring tribes, simply could not be a good thing. The loss of people meant that their population did not grow at the level it
should have. Furthermore, the extent of the sacrifices led to the hatred of some of the surrounding people (especially the Tlaxcala) who were willing to assist the Spanish.

8) Cortez was particularly motivated to conquer the Aztecs because of human sacrifice, which was seen as ungodly, evil and unnatural.

9) Montezuma’s inefficiency
There was evidence that the Aztec Emperor,
Montezuma Il, learnt of Cortez presence through spies. He sent Cortes gifts of gold, chocolate and food to welcome them. This only encouraged Cortes.

Question 33

The Arrival of Franciso Pizarro

Answer 33

Francisco Pizarro was motivated to explore South America because of rumors of mineral wealth in the region. He was ambitious and wanted to improve his life.

He made two (2) initial expeditions to South America in an attempt to find gold. In 1524, his first expedition ended in failure which saw the death of several of his men. In 1526, his second expedition was also a failure, but he was able to reach the borders of the Inca Empire.

Because of his failure to find gold in South America, the Governor of Panama refused to sponsor Pizarro’s third expedition. He therefore travelled to Spain and convinced the King that he will eventually find gold. The prospect of finding gold was intriguing and so he got the support of the Spanish government and was
made a governor.

Question 34

Advancement on the Incas

Answer 34

In 1532, Pizarro returned to South America and
established the settlement of San Miguel de Piura. He
then started to advance towards the Inca Empire.

He had with him some 175 men, horses and an
ineffective cannon. On his way to the Inca Capital, he
was confronted with thousands of Incan warriors. The
Incans did not attack, and Pizarro was able to request
audience with the Incan leader, Atahualpa.

Pizarro asked that Atahualpa, to meet with him and his bodyguards unarmed, and both the Inca and Pizarro’s men stood at a standstill. Accepting Pizarro’s offer was the Inca’s worst mistake. Pizarro knew that if he had the Emperor, he would have the entire Incan
Empire, and all the gold which it held.

Shortly after meeting with Pizarro, Atahualpa’s gold headband was torn form his head, and with the blast of a cannon, Pizarro’s men slaughtered all of the Incan warriors.

Atahualpa attempted to bargain with Pizarro for his life, offering him a room filled with gold (roughly 17 feet by 22 feet by 9 feet), but shortly after Atahualpa showed Pizarro the room he was murdered. Pizarro took control over the Incan Capital, Cuzco in
1533.

Pizzaro killed over 2000 Incan warriors and captured about 5000. He looted the city and by 1535, he established the city of Lima as the new capital of Peru.

Question 35

Factors which led to the conquest of the Incas

Answer 35

1) Smallpox and other European diseases contributed to the diminishing Indian populations because these people were not immune to them — even so they were using religious rituals rather than medicine to treat those who were sick. There was little quarantining and mostly the warriors succumbed to the diseases.

2) There was much political disunity among the Incans. When Pizzaro arrived, the Inca Empire was in the midst of a civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar. This weakened the empire and distracted the warriors.

3) The Spanish had the advantage of horses — the Incans feared these large unfamiliar animals which gave the Spanish the advantage of height in combat. It meant that during warfare the Spanish soldiers towered over the Indians.

4) The Spanish had the advantage of superior weaponry. Arrows and wooden spears were no match for Spanish amour, muskets and cannons.

5) Atahualpa was weak and ineffective. He underestimated the Spanish when he went to meet Pizarro. He was confident that his thousands of warriors could defeat the hundreds of Spanish men.

Question 36

Debate on the conquest of the Aztecs and the Incas

Answer 36

1) Spanish technological superiority
The conquistadores were in fact poorly equipped. Most of Cortés’ men had only swords, pikes and knives. The effectiveness of the few weapons which
Cortés had (13 muskets, 10 bronze canon and 4 light canon) was significantly lessened by environmental factors. Heavy rains and several river crossings on Cortés’ march up to Tenochtitlan dampened the gun powder.

This was demonstrated by the events of “La Noche Triste”, an encounter between Cortés’ men and
the Aztec war machine which proved nearly fatal for the Spaniards in spite of the superior weaponry, and which forced Cortés and his men to beat a hasty retreat from the Aztec capital.

2) Use of Horses
Cortés and his 508 men had a mere 16 horses at their
disposal. Whereas the horse did provide some Spaniards with the benefit of mobility, very few of
the conquerors were able to gain access to horses in the initial stage of the conquest. Unaccustomed as the indigenes were to horses, the initial element of surprise provided by the sight of men on horseback may have strengthened the psychological advantage held by the Spaniards However, neither the early assessment of the Spaniards as god-like figures nor the indigenous fear of the horse lasted beyond the first few weeks of contact and played no part in
the decisive battles which came later.

3) Disunity within the Empires
The disunity within the mainland empires certainly aided the conquest. The normally cohesive and highly centralized Incan empire would hardly have been divided by civil strife had the normal chain of command and succession not been interrupted by old world diseases.