Module 1 Flashcards

Question

Body Quadrants

Answer 1

-the abdominal and pelvic cavities can be divided into 4 quadrants -these quadrants often used in medicine to describe location of pain, dysfunction or injury Upper left (UL) Lower left (LL) Upper right (UR) Lower right (LR) *left and right viewed as if living in patients body

Answer 2

-4 types In body that are building blocks for every organ Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue, muscular tissue

Answer 3

-composed of closely apposed (side by side) cells with very little or no intervening intercellular substances 2 types of epithelium tissue: *covering epithelium-cells that cover the external and internal surfaces Glandular epithelium-cells that produce and secrete product such as hormones Characteristics of epithelium tissue: Take note observed in many shapes and layerings throughout body. All epithelium tissues share these characteristics -cellularity— adjacent epithelial cells are joined by specialized junctions (tight junctions, adhering junctions, desmosomes and gap junctions) -polarity— an epithelial cell has an exposed (apical) surface that faces the exterior of the body or internal space and a basal surface where it is attached to the underlying tissue. Epithelial cells attach to underlying basement membrane. -attachment— epithelial cells rest on and are attached to the basal lamina (basement membrane). This basement membrane separates cell from underlying tissues -avascularity—epithelial tissues have no direct blood supply. The epithelial cells receive nutrients from the blood vessels in the underlying tissues -regeneration—epithelial cells are renewed continuously Functions of epithelium: Numerous functions although no one single epithelium performs them all -Support and protection— covers and lines external and internal surface of body protecting the underlying tissue from injury, pathogens, and dehydration (ex. Skin) -permeability— allows substances to be absorbed into the body (ex. Epithelium lining in digestive system absorbs nutrients to body) -sensation— some contain specialized cells that are able to detect sensory stimuli (ex. Skin senses touch, tongue senses taste). -secretion/contracility— some can secrete specific substances (ex. Skin secretes lubricating oil, enzymes, and hormones are secreted by digestive system). Classifying epithelium —body contains many different kinds of epithelia. Epithelium may be classified based upon its cell 1. Cell organization, can be classified as either simple (epithelium only 1 cell layer thick) or stratified (2 or more cell layers thick; only deepest layer of cells is in contact with the basal lamina) 2. Cell shape as either squamous (flat (thin), wide and somewhat irregular shape), cuboidal (all about the same size on all sides, nucleus centrally located), columnar (taller than they are wide, nucleus is oval and located in basal region of cell) Naming epithelium Named by combining 2 classifications First name: cell organization Last name: cell shape Ex. Simple squamous, stratified columnar Types of Simple Epithelium 1. Simple squamous Form: -1 layer of flattened cells -can be found lining blood vessels. Blood vessels transport materials to and from cells and for energy efficiency, should have thin barrier to allow for rapid exchange Function: -provides thin barrier between vessels and tissues, allowing for material to travel a short distance between the two 2.Simple Cuboidal Form: -single layer of cube cells -can be found lining some glands (ex. Kidney tubules) 3. Simple Columnar Form: -single layer of column shaped cells -can be found lining gastrointestinal (GI) tract (uterine tube). Single layer allows for rapid secretion or absorption of material Function: Allow for digestion in GI tract through secretions and absorption of various material. Types of Stratified Epithelium 1. Stratified Squamous Form: -multiple layers of flat shaped cells -basal cell may be more cuboidal in shape but the apical (or superficial cells) display a squamous flattened shape Function: -makes up most superficial layer of skin as multiple thin layers of small cells allowing the skin to protect deeper structures from abrasion and damage. 2. Stratified cuboidal Form: Contains multiple layers of cube shaped cells Function: Ones located in duct of glands secrete, protect and strength the walls of ducts of glands 3. Stratified columnar Form: Multiple layers of column-shaped cells -relatively rare in human body -can be found in male urethra Function: Protect and secrete 2 Types of Epithelium which don’t fit into the organizational framework 1. Transitional Form: -consists of multiple layers of epithelial cells that allows for stretching -vary in shape depending if tissue stretched or relaxed -presence of domed shaped surface cells which is a reflection of the relaxed state, when stretched the surface flattens Function: -In urinary bladder, epithelial cells able to change shape as urine accumulates in bladder -lines the ureters and proximal end of the urethra (near the bladder) 2. Pseudostratified (ciliated columnar) Form: -comprised only a single layer of cells -cell nuclei positioned in a manner suggestive of stratified epithelium Function: -short cilia or hair-like projections on surface of cells help in moving mucous like in respiratory tract where mucous must be transported

Answer 4

Most widespread and abundant tissue in human body Most diverse with wide variety of functions Consistency range from gel-like softness of areolar connective tissues to the hardness of bone -loose connective tissues -dense regular connective tissue -dense irregular connective tissues Functions Primary to support, anchor and connect various parts of the body -support and protection— bones of the skull protect the brain, kidneys surrounded by a protective fat padding -structural framework for the body— cartilage supports body structures such as windpipe (trachea), ears and nose. Bones of Skelton provide framework for skeletal muscles -medium for exchange— of things like nutrients and metabolic waste. Blood serves as a medium that carries gases, nutrients, wastes and blood cells to different parts of the body -storage and repair— bone stores minerals such as calcium, fat serves as major energy reservoir for body -defense— acts as physical barrier, through white blood cells (macrophages, neutrophilis), and antibody production (plasma cells). Components of Connective tissue (CT) Exist in number of forms but all types have 3 basic structural elements: cells, fibres, and intercellular substance (ground substance) Cells of connective tissues -many different types of cells can be found here -some have large cell diversity, others don’t -some cells CT fixed meaning permanent residents in connective tissues (fibroblasts) and other cells wandering meaning they are transient migrants who have entered CT from blood in response to specific stimuli (ex. Macrophages which are white blood cells) Fibres of connective tissues -three types of fibres secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibres (resist larger forces, most common, flexible with high tensile strength, microscopic structure of collagen fibre appears similar to a rope, less flexible when cooking think can denature to allow for soft meat, heat make easy to peal chicken skin), reticular fibres (thin fibres that form a branching interwoven network with no common alignment) , and elastic fibres (thin and branched, elastic fibres appear wavy or curly and have rubber-like material that is able to stretch) -each type of fibre formed by proteins made of long peptide chains -different components and proportions of fibre types lead to diverse functions of various CT Ground Substance -occupies the space between the cells and fibres of connective tissues -high water content -transparent -colourless -viscous Types of connective tissues: Connective tissues is broadly classified into 3 types: Connective Tissue Proper, Supporting Connective Tissues, Specialized (Fluid) Connective Tissue Connective tissue proper is broken into 2 categories depending on amount and arrangement 1. Loose CT- -more ground substance with few CT fibres -elastin fibres which allow flexibility and collagen fibres which act as anchor, fibroblast throughout Ex. Adipose tissue Adipose tissue specialized type where fat cells (adipocytes) account for most of the volume of this tissue. This tissue acts as padding, insulating against heat loss through the skin and serves as a packing or filler around and between structures 2. Dense CT- -less ground substance with more CT fibres -lots of collagens fibre as hurt more to pull apart Ex. Elastic tissue, tendons, ligaments and surrounding blood vessels (places that need resistance) Elastic tissue is a specialized type composed of bundles of thick parallel elastic fibres between which we find some collagen and fibroblasts. Look wavy. Due to fibrous nature, this tissue has ability to stretch and recoil Supporting connective tissue is broken into 2 categories 1. Bone -important structural tissue who forms framework of body -main structural unit of bone is osteon (rings make of compacted bones with central Haversian canal which houses blood vessels and nerves. Osteocytes bone cells trapped in rings of mineralized bone matrix. Bones mineralized 2. Cartilage -structural component of body -nose ears, edge bones, end of ribs -can further classify into hyaline cartilage (glassy under microscope, many chondrocytes found in spaces known as lacunae (in all cartilage0, strong but some flexibility, edge of moveable joints, lining windpipe) , fibre cartilage (lots fibres within, denser arrangement of collagen, found in disks between vertebrae and meniscus in knees), elastic cartilage (network of fibres, in flexible places like external error) Specialized (Fluid) connective tissue broken into 2 categories 1. Blood -fluid within blood vessels and the heart -contains various cells and proteins and performs number of essential functions within body -connect different parts of body, provide support Ground substance here- fluid, cells- red blood cells erythrocytes, white blood cells leukocytes and platelets, fibre like proteins dissolved in ground substance that come noticeable when blood clumps 2. Lymph -interstitial fluid (fluid that bathes cells) that collected into thin-walled lymphatic vessels ands transported to cardiovascular system Connective tissue diseases 2 categories: 1. Rare genetic disorders 2. Acquired disorders Ex.Elhers-Danlo’s syndrome (EDS) which cause defects in collagen. Without proper functioning collagen, people have symptoms which affect functions of muscular and skeletal systems. There would be laxity or looseness in tissue that can’t resist lots of forces Supporting Connective Tissue Provides strong, durable framework to protect and support soft body tissues. Cartilage and bone two types Cartilage: -firm tissues but softer and more flexible than bones -types include hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage -found in: joints between moveable bones, between vertebrae in spine, ears and nose, bronchial tubes or airways 3 components: cells (primarily chondrocytes which are located throughout the ground substance in small spaces called lacunae that contain one or more cells), fibres (can include various collagen or elastic fibres scattered throughout the cartilage), ground substance (firm gel that makes cartilage solid however cells called chondrocytes are located throughout the intercellular substance). Additional components: perichondrim (dense irregular connective tissue that envelops cartilage to provide nutrients to the cartilage which is a vascular and unable to get nutrients from a direct blood supply and then removes waste products. Not all types of cartilage have this), lacunae (small spaces in cartilage that houses one or more chondrocytes (the major cells of cartilage) Three major types of cartilage distinguished by differences in type and abundance of fibres 1. Hyaline Anatomical characteristics: -water-resistant tissue that designed to bear and distribute weight -strong rubbery, flexible tissue -most common type Location: -joint surface of moveable joints -walls of the nose -trachea -bronchi (upper respiratory tract) -ribs 2. Fibrocartilage Anatomical characteristics: -though and inflexible form -durable and resistant to compression Location: -intervertebral discs and symphysis pubis 3.Elastic Anatomical characteristics: -more flexible than hyaline cartilage Location: -external ear -Eustachian tube (connects ear to nose) -epiglottis (barrier to trachea during swallowing food or drink) Bone: Functions: support, locomotion, protection, blood cell production, mineral metabolism 2 broad categories: 1/3 organic components (cells, fibres, ground substance), 2/3 inorganic components which provide rigidity of bone (minerals, salts, mainly calcium phosphate) Structural unit is repeated cylindrical structures known as osteons. Each osteon made of concentric rings with hollow central canal, also known as Haversian canal which contains blood vessels and nerves. The cellular components of the bone are located between concentric rings.

Answer 5

Looking at tissues under microscope and help us classify them and identify structures

Answer 6

Sagittal axis

Answer 7

Longitudinal axis