Module 1

Question 1

Anatomy is the study of what

Answer 1

Structure

Question 2

The word anatomy is derived from Greek and means BLANK

Answer 2

To cut apart
(In order to ascertain their position, relations, structure and function)

Question 3

Four areas of anatomy

Answer 3

*Histology (microscopic features)
*Gross anatomy (macroscopic features)
*Neuroanatomy
Embryology

*means focus on in this course

Question 4

Where is the smallest bone and muscle in your body located?

Answer 4

Middle ear and their combined size is that of a dime

Question 5

What does the average human brain weigh?

Answer 5

The average human brain weighs 3 pounds, a similar weight to the liver

Question 6

How many times its size can the human adult stomach expand?

Answer 6

4 times, holding nearly 2 Litres

Question 7

How many feet long is the digestive tract?

Answer 7

Over 29 feet long

Question 8

What organ is roughly the same size as your fist?

Answer 8

Your heart

Question 9

Can humans survive with just 1 lung?

Answer 9

Yes!

Question 10

The organization of a body structure is instrumental as it means by which a specific function is carried out

Question 11

In anatomy, blank and blank are inextricably linked

Answer 11

Form and function

Question 12

A complex network of what three things allow for life?

Answer 12

Cells, tissues, organs

Question 13

10 major systems responsible for body functions

Answer 13

1. Skeletal
   -create infrastructure with facilitate other systems (provides anchor points for muscular system)
   -over 200 bones
   -hold body together
   -give it shape
   -protect organs and tissues
2. Muscular
   -create infrastructure with facilitate other systems (cardiovascular system nestled within muscles)
   -three types of muscles; skeletal, smooth, cardiac
   -facilitate movement
   -found throughout whole body
3. Cardiovascular
   -create infrastructure with facilitate other systems
   -pipeline including heart, bloodline and blood
   -AKA circulatory system
   -Delivers oxygen, white blood cells, hormones and nutrients throughout body
4. Nervous
   -create infrastructure with facilitate other systems
   -communication of nerve cells
   -used to transmit information and coordinate body functions
   -comprised of brain (hub of century and intellectual activity), spinal cord, cranial nerves, spinal nerves

From the above the systems created by neurons, blood, muscles and bones allow for regulatory system
5. Endocrine
-regulatory system
-series of glands who use info carried from nervous system to regulate body processes
-thanks to neuron connection aware of amount of hormones and other chemicals to produce
-chemicals then distributed throughout body by cardiovascular system
-ex. Thyroid
6. Lymphatic
-regulatory system
-collection of lymph nodes and vessels which regulate body defences
-AKA immune system
-use neuro pathways transmit information about affected areas of body then sends healing agents like white blood cells via blood stream
7. Urinary
-regulatory system
-includes: kidneys, urethra, bladder, ureters
-AKA renal system
-maintains electrolyte levels and filters waste from blood through blood vessels and expelled as urine

All above system require energy to function and where respiratory system comes into play

8. Digestive
   -energy system
   -30 Ft series of organs converting food into fuel
   -food enters through mouth, moves into esophogus, stomach and intestines, nutrients absorbed and solid waste expelled through anal canal, end of digestive tract system
9. Respiratory
   -energy system
   -group of passageways and organs that extract oxygen from air
   -air enter through nose/nasal cavities, travel down throat, transported to lungs.
   -lung extract oxygen for use and expel carbon dioxide when exhale

All systems began with reproductive system

10. Reproductive
    -responsible for creating life
    -primary organs differ between sexes
    Women-ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus, and vagina
    Men- testes, sperm channel
    -together fertilization occurs, organs formed, child born

Question 14

What are the 2 types of structures of the human body that can be organized into fundamental levels

Answer 14

Microscopic (small) and macroscopic copic (large)

Question 15

Organization of the human body

Answer 15

Chemical level-a molecule is a group of atoms bonded together
Cellular level-cells are the smallest living structure and are formed from atoms and molecules
Tissue level-similar cells that perform specialized functions
Organ level-two or more tissues that work together to perform complex functions
Organ system level-consists of related organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve common functions
Organismal level-all body systems function in a single living human

Question 16

The body can be organized into what two main regions?

Answer 16

Axial-forms the main vertical axis of the body and includes head, neck and trunk (centre body)
Appendicular-includes limbs or appendages that attach to axis and away from midline of body (branches to body)

Question 17

At macroscopic levels we can organize individual organs into organ systems based on…

Answer 17

Structure and function

Question 18

Organ systems

Answer 18

Integumentary System - makes up our body covering and includes our skin and associated structures such as our hair and nails
Skeletal System - includes bones and joints of body
Muscular System - contains muscles. The muscular and skeletal systems work together for movement and support
Nervous system - includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves that run throughout the body
Endocrine system - includes grands that produce and secrete hormones (molecules released from one cell into the blood that travel throughout the body to affected other cells). Along with nervous system, these two organ systems function in the integration and coordination of the body to act as a unit
Digestive system - starts at mouth with a long tube and ends at anus
Respiratory system - allow you to breathe and includes nose, air passageways and lungs
Cardiovascular system - includes blood, blood vessels and heart
Lymphatic System - includes lymphatic vessels (thin-walled vessels structured like blood vessels that Cary lymph (interstitial fluid of the body)) cells, and structures that can initiate an immune response
Urinary system - includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. The respiratory, cardiovascular, lymphatic, and urinary systems function together in the processing and transportation of nutrients, oxygen and waste products
Reproductive system - provides means for the sexual maturation and procreation of each individual

Question 19

Body Cavities

Answer 19

-organ systems are disclosed within these distinct spaces
-contain and protect our vital organs
-area within protective membrane

Question 20

What are the two major body cavities

Answer 20

Ventral body cavity-front (best view from anterior (front))
Subdivided into two big groups: thoracic (above diaphragm), abdomino-pelvic (below diaphragm)
Thoracic can be subdivided into: superior mediastinum (containing esophagus and trachea) (sternum protects these structures), pericardial (contains heart), pleural (contain lungs)
Abdominal-pelvic can be subdivided into: abdominal (containing digestive viscera), pelvic (contains bladder and reproductive organs)

Dorsal body cavity-back (best view laterally (side))
Contains: brain, spinal cord (aka central nervous system)
Is divided into two cavities: cranial ( houses brain), vertebral (contains spinal cord)

Question 21

What are the characteristics of universal/anatomical positions

Answer 21

-standing upright
-feet parallel and on the floor together
-head level and looking forward
-arms at side of body
-palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from body

Question 22

Directional terms explained

Answer 22

Provides precise descriptions of the location of structures relative to other structures in anatomical position.
-often directional terms are paired with an associated term that means the opposite

Superior (above or over, closer to head of body) (Cranial)/inferior (below or under, closer to feet of body)(caudal) ex. Abdomen inferior to lungs Anterior (in front of, front of body) (ventral interchangeably used to anterior)/posterior (after, behind, following, towards the rear of body) (dorsal)
Medial (towards the midline, middle, away from the side) / lateral (towards the side away from the middle) Proximal (near, closer to the origin/point of limp attachment to body)/distal (away from, further from the origin/point of limp attachment to body) ex. Wrist distal relative to elbow
Superficial (external layer of skin closer to the surface of the body)/deep (deep to the skin and farther from the surface of the body) ex. subcutaneous fat deep compared to rest of skin parietal (indicating component of the body walls, which may include muscles, connective tissue and tissue covering organs)/visceral (lines the outer surfaces of organs (viscera) within the cavities)

Question 23

Explain what planes or sections are used for

Answer 23

Planes: imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body
Plane types: sagittal, horizontal, coronal

Sections: are cuts of the body made along the plane
-flat 2D image of original 3D
-get new views
-different sections analyzed together allows for better appreciation of structures
-different sections allow for own narration of environment

To describe the location or direction of structures within the body
-make possible to study and examine interior structures

Question 24

List and explain the planes and sections of the body

Answer 24

-Sagittal- verticals plane dividing body into left and right parts. When this plane passes specifically through the midline of the body, it is referred to as the midsagittal plane. Divides into equal halves
-coronal- aka frontal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
-horizontal- aka transverse plane/ cross sectional is a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts
-oblique- plane that passes through the body at an angle
-longitudinal- any plane perpendicular to the horizontal plane. Both sagittal and coronal planes are examples.

Question 25

Body Quadrants

Answer 25

-the abdominal and pelvic cavities can be divided into 4 quadrants
-these quadrants often used in medicine to describe location of pain, dysfunction or injury
Upper left (UL)
Lower left (LL)
Upper right (UR)
Lower right (LR)
*left and right viewed as if living in patients body

Question 26

Generally sum up basic tissue

Answer 26

-4 types In body that are building blocks for every organ
Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue, muscular tissue

Question 27

Epithelium tissue

Answer 27

-composed of closely apposed (side by side) cells with very little or no intervening intercellular substances

2 types of epithelium tissue:
*covering epithelium-cells that cover the external and internal surfaces
Glandular epithelium-cells that produce and secrete product such as hormones

Characteristics of epithelium tissue:
Take note observed in many shapes and layerings throughout body. All epithelium tissues share these characteristics

-cellularity— adjacent epithelial cells are joined by specialized junctions (tight junctions, adhering junctions, desmosomes and gap junctions)

-polarity— an epithelial cell has an exposed (apical) surface that faces the exterior of the body or internal space and a basal surface where it is attached to the underlying tissue. Epithelial cells attach to underlying basement membrane.

-attachment— epithelial cells rest on and are attached to the basal lamina (basement membrane). This basement membrane separates cell from underlying tissues

-avascularity—epithelial tissues have no direct blood supply. The epithelial cells receive nutrients from the blood vessels in the underlying tissues

-regeneration—epithelial cells are renewed continuously

Functions of epithelium:
Numerous functions although no one single epithelium performs them all

-Support and protection— covers and lines external and internal surface of body protecting the underlying tissue from injury, pathogens, and dehydration (ex. Skin)

-permeability— allows substances to be absorbed into the body (ex. Epithelium lining in digestive system absorbs nutrients to body)

-sensation— some contain specialized cells that are able to detect sensory stimuli (ex. Skin senses touch, tongue senses taste).

-secretion/contracility— some can secrete specific substances (ex. Skin secretes lubricating oil, enzymes, and hormones are secreted by digestive system).

Classifying epithelium
—body contains many different kinds of epithelia. Epithelium may be classified based upon its cell
1. Cell organization, can be classified as either simple (epithelium only 1 cell layer thick) or stratified (2 or more cell layers thick; only deepest layer of cells is in contact with the basal lamina)
2. Cell shape as either squamous (flat (thin), wide and somewhat irregular shape), cuboidal (all about the same size on all sides, nucleus centrally located), columnar (taller than they are wide, nucleus is oval and located in basal region of cell)

Naming epithelium
Named by combining 2 classifications
First name: cell organization
Last name: cell shape
Ex. Simple squamous, stratified columnar

Types of Simple Epithelium

1. Simple squamous
   Form:
   -1 layer of flattened cells
   -can be found lining blood vessels. Blood vessels transport materials to and from cells and for energy efficiency, should have thin barrier to allow for rapid exchange
   Function:
   -provides thin barrier between vessels and tissues, allowing for material to travel a short distance between the two

2.Simple Cuboidal
Form:
-single layer of cube cells
-can be found lining some glands (ex. Kidney tubules)

3. Simple Columnar
   Form:
   -single layer of column shaped cells
   -can be found lining gastrointestinal (GI) tract (uterine tube). Single layer allows for rapid secretion or absorption of material
   Function:
   Allow for digestion in GI tract through secretions and absorption of various material.

Types of Stratified Epithelium

1. Stratified Squamous
   Form:
   -multiple layers of flat shaped cells
   -basal cell may be more cuboidal in shape but the apical (or superficial cells) display a squamous flattened shape
   Function:
   -makes up most superficial layer of skin as multiple thin layers of small cells allowing the skin to protect deeper structures from abrasion and damage.
2. Stratified cuboidal
   Form:
   Contains multiple layers of cube shaped cells
   Function:
   Ones located in duct of glands secrete, protect and strength the walls of ducts of glands
3. Stratified columnar
   Form:
   Multiple layers of column-shaped cells
   -relatively rare in human body
   -can be found in male urethra
   Function:
   Protect and secrete

2 Types of Epithelium which don’t fit into the organizational framework

1. Transitional
   Form:
   -consists of multiple layers of epithelial cells that allows for stretching
   -vary in shape depending if tissue stretched or relaxed
   -presence of domed shaped surface cells which is a reflection of the relaxed state, when stretched the surface flattens
   Function:
   -In urinary bladder, epithelial cells able to change shape as urine accumulates in bladder
   -lines the ureters and proximal end of the urethra (near the bladder)
2. Pseudostratified (ciliated columnar)
   Form:
   -comprised only a single layer of cells
   -cell nuclei positioned in a manner suggestive of stratified epithelium
   Function:
   -short cilia or hair-like projections on surface of cells help in moving mucous like in respiratory tract where mucous must be transported

Question 28

Connective Tissue

Answer 28

Most widespread and abundant tissue in human body
Most diverse with wide variety of functions

Consistency range from gel-like softness of areolar connective tissues to the hardness of bone
-loose connective tissues
-dense regular connective tissue
-dense irregular connective tissues

Functions
Primary to support, anchor and connect various parts of the body

-support and protection— bones of the skull protect the brain, kidneys surrounded by a protective fat padding
-structural framework for the body— cartilage supports body structures such as windpipe (trachea), ears and nose. Bones of Skelton provide framework for skeletal muscles
-medium for exchange— of things like nutrients and metabolic waste. Blood serves as a medium that carries gases, nutrients, wastes and blood cells to different parts of the body
-storage and repair— bone stores minerals such as calcium, fat serves as major energy reservoir for body
-defense— acts as physical barrier, through white blood cells (macrophages, neutrophilis), and antibody production (plasma cells).

Components of Connective tissue (CT)
Exist in number of forms but all types have 3 basic structural elements: cells, fibres, and intercellular substance (ground substance)

Cells of connective tissues
-many different types of cells can be found here
-some have large cell diversity, others don’t
-some cells CT fixed meaning permanent residents in connective tissues (fibroblasts) and other cells wandering meaning they are transient migrants who have entered CT from blood in response to specific stimuli (ex. Macrophages which are white blood cells)

Fibres of connective tissues
-three types of fibres secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibres (resist larger forces, most common, flexible with high tensile strength, microscopic structure of collagen fibre appears similar to a rope, less flexible when cooking think can denature to allow for soft meat, heat make easy to peal chicken skin), reticular fibres (thin fibres that form a branching interwoven network with no common alignment) , and elastic fibres (thin and branched, elastic fibres appear wavy or curly and have rubber-like material that is able to stretch)
-each type of fibre formed by proteins made of long peptide chains
-different components and proportions of fibre types lead to diverse functions of various CT

Ground Substance
-occupies the space between the cells and fibres of connective tissues
-high water content
-transparent
-colourless
-viscous

Types of connective tissues:

Connective tissues is broadly classified into 3 types: Connective Tissue Proper, Supporting Connective Tissues, Specialized (Fluid) Connective Tissue

Connective tissue proper is broken into 2 categories depending on amount and arrangement
1. Loose CT-
-more ground substance with few CT fibres
-elastin fibres which allow flexibility and collagen fibres which act as anchor, fibroblast throughout
Ex. Adipose tissue
Adipose tissue specialized type where fat cells (adipocytes) account for most of the volume of this tissue. This tissue acts as padding, insulating against heat loss through the skin and serves as a packing or filler around and between structures
2. Dense CT-
-less ground substance with more CT fibres
-lots of collagens fibre as hurt more to pull apart
Ex. Elastic tissue, tendons, ligaments and surrounding blood vessels (places that need resistance)
Elastic tissue is a specialized type composed of bundles of thick parallel elastic fibres between which we find some collagen and fibroblasts. Look wavy. Due to fibrous nature, this tissue has ability to stretch and recoil

Supporting connective tissue is broken into 2 categories
1. Bone
-important structural tissue who forms framework of body
-main structural unit of bone is osteon (rings make of compacted bones with central Haversian canal which houses blood vessels and nerves. Osteocytes bone cells trapped in rings of mineralized bone matrix. Bones mineralized

2. Cartilage
   -structural component of body
   -nose ears, edge bones, end of ribs
   -can further classify into hyaline cartilage (glassy under microscope, many chondrocytes found in spaces known as lacunae (in all cartilage0, strong but some flexibility, edge of moveable joints, lining windpipe) , fibre cartilage (lots fibres within, denser arrangement of collagen, found in disks between vertebrae and meniscus in knees), elastic cartilage (network of fibres, in flexible places like external error)

Specialized (Fluid) connective tissue broken into 2 categories
1. Blood
-fluid within blood vessels and the heart
-contains various cells and proteins and performs number of essential functions within body
-connect different parts of body, provide support
Ground substance here- fluid, cells- red blood cells erythrocytes, white blood cells leukocytes and platelets, fibre like proteins dissolved in ground substance that come noticeable when blood clumps
2. Lymph
-interstitial fluid (fluid that bathes cells) that collected into thin-walled lymphatic vessels ands transported to cardiovascular system

Connective tissue diseases
2 categories:
1. Rare genetic disorders
2. Acquired disorders

Ex.Elhers-Danlo’s syndrome (EDS) which cause defects in collagen. Without proper functioning collagen, people have symptoms which affect functions of muscular and skeletal systems. There would be laxity or looseness in tissue that can’t resist lots of forces

Supporting Connective Tissue
Provides strong, durable framework to protect and support soft body tissues. Cartilage and bone two types

Cartilage:
-firm tissues but softer and more flexible than bones
-types include hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage
-found in: joints between moveable bones, between vertebrae in spine, ears and nose, bronchial tubes or airways
3 components: cells (primarily chondrocytes which are located throughout the ground substance in small spaces called lacunae that contain one or more cells), fibres (can include various collagen or elastic fibres scattered throughout the cartilage), ground substance (firm gel that makes cartilage solid however cells called chondrocytes are located throughout the intercellular substance).
Additional components: perichondrim (dense irregular connective tissue that envelops cartilage to provide nutrients to the cartilage which is a vascular and unable to get nutrients from a direct blood supply and then removes waste products. Not all types of cartilage have this), lacunae (small spaces in cartilage that houses one or more chondrocytes (the major cells of cartilage)

Three major types of cartilage distinguished by differences in type and abundance of fibres
1. Hyaline
Anatomical characteristics:
-water-resistant tissue that designed to bear and distribute weight
-strong rubbery, flexible tissue
-most common type
Location:
-joint surface of moveable joints
-walls of the nose
-trachea
-bronchi (upper respiratory tract)
-ribs

2. Fibrocartilage
   Anatomical characteristics:
   -though and inflexible form
   -durable and resistant to compression
   Location:
   -intervertebral discs and symphysis pubis

3.Elastic
Anatomical characteristics:
-more flexible than hyaline cartilage
Location:
-external ear
-Eustachian tube (connects ear to nose)
-epiglottis (barrier to trachea during swallowing food or drink)

Bone:
Functions: support, locomotion, protection, blood cell production, mineral metabolism

2 broad categories: 1/3 organic components (cells, fibres, ground substance), 2/3 inorganic components which provide rigidity of bone (minerals, salts, mainly calcium phosphate)

Structural unit is repeated cylindrical structures known as osteons. Each osteon made of concentric rings with hollow central canal, also known as Haversian canal which contains blood vessels and nerves. The cellular components of the bone are located between concentric rings.

Question 29

Histology

Answer 29

Looking at tissues under microscope and help us classify them and identify structures

Question 30

If you see a movement in front plane around what axis rotation at

Answer 30

Sagittal axis

Question 31

See movement in transversal plane, movement around what axis

Answer 31

Longitudinal axis