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ISAP > Module 1 > Flashcards

Module 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Major parts of the brain

A

cerebrum, cerebellum, Brainstem, diencephalon

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2
Q

What are the main lobes, sulci and gyri of the cerebrum

A

Sulci: the grooves between the gyri (shallow grooves) e.g. central sulcus (from superior to inferior)

gyri: most conspicuous feature on the surface of each hemisphere- they are numerous folds which greatly increase the surface area of the cortex

precentral gyrus: anterior to central sulcus: primary motor cortex

post central gyrus: posterior to central sulcus: primary somatic sensory cortex

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3
Q

name the three parts of the brainstem

A

medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain

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4
Q

What are the roles of each part the brainstem?

A
  1. Medulla oblongata: ascending and descending pathways and important reflex integration areas (cardiac centre)
  2. Pons: - ‘bridge’ between medulla, midbrain, cerebellum, Sleep centre initiates REM sleep (rapid eye movement) Respiratory (pontine respiratory centre) – works in conjunction with the medullary rhythmicity centre
  3. Midbrain: area for visual and auditory reflexes, controls movements and relays motor impulses to important reflex integration
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5
Q

Determine what the major reflex centres can be found in each part of the brainstem.

A
  1. Medulla oblongata:
    o Regulation of heart rate (cardiac centre)
    o Blood vessel diameter (vasomotor centre)
    o Respiratory (medullary rhythmicity centre)
    o Coughing and sneezing
    o Swallowing
    o Vomiting
    o Hiccupping
  2. Pons
    o Sleep centre initiates REM sleep
    o Respiratory (pontine respiratory centre)
  3. Midbrain
    o Visual reflex – Coordinates head and eye movements track movements
    o Auditory reflexes – Startle reflex
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6
Q

List the components of a reflex arc.

A
  1. Sensory receptor
  2. Sensory neuron
  3. Integration area (interneuron)
  4. Motor neuron
  5. Effector organ
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7
Q

Determine the difference between a somatic and autonomic reflex, give examples.

A

Somatic reflexes: Deal with skeletal muscles, Remove body from painful stimuli, Keeping balance/ posture, Involves either the spinal cord or the brain as the integration centre, e.g. patella reflex

Autonomic reflexes: Involve the control of Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle and Body viscera,

Used for maintaining bodily functions, E.g. HR, BP, blood CO2 levels, Can involve spinal cord or Brainstem through autonomic NS

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8
Q

How does a stretch reflex occur?

A

The stretch reflex is activated (or caused) by a stretch in the muscle spindle, A protective method to prevent muscle tearing, autonomic regulation of skeletal muscle length, monosynaptic reflex.

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9
Q

Locate and describe various functions of the hypothalamus.

A

o homeostatic mechanisms.
o secretes releasing and inhibiting factors (hormones).
o manufactures ADH and oxytocin.

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10
Q

Determine the structural differences between the anterior and posterior pituitary based on the embryological derivation of each.

A

Where does the posterior pituitary gland develop from embryologically.
- Down growth from the brain.

Where does the anterior pituitary gland grow from embryologically.
- Develops from the epithelia tissue in the roof of the mouth and migrates to its final position.

Anterior (Adenohypophysis) – grows from the roof of mouth and is made of glandular cells that migrated its way up to sit beneath the base of the brain

Posterior (Neurohypophysis) – down growth from the brain, therefore neural tissue

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11
Q

What master gland controls the pituitary gland and how does it do this?

A

Hypothalamus

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12
Q

Describe the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system.

A

Network of capillaries in which releasing/inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus travel to the anterior pituitary. (anterior)

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13
Q

Describe the hypothalamo-hypophysial tract.

A

Tract of axons that connects to the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary. They run down through the infundibulum. Hormones from the hypothalamus are transported down the middle of the axons to be released from the posterior pituitary. (posterior)

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14
Q

7 hormones of anterior pituitary and target tissues:

A 
growth hormone (GH)
-- most body tissues

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) - tropic
– thyroid gland

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - tropic
-- adrenal gland (cortex only)

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - tropic
– ovaries and testes

luteinising hormone (LH) - tropic
-- ovaries and testes

prolactin
– ovaries and mammary glands

melocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
– skin cells (melanocytes)

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15
Q

2 hormones from posterior pituitary

A

Antidiuretic hormone
– Stimulates kidneys to retain water

Oxytocin
– Influence on smooth muscle of the uterus and
mammary glands

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16
Q

Where are the hormones synthesised that are released by the posterior pituitary?

A

Hypothalamus

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17
Q

Describe the location of the thyroid gland.

A

Wraps around the trachea, located in the neck region.

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18
Q

What are the 3 main parts of the thyroid gland?

A
  • right lobe.
  • isthmus (middle).
  • left lobe.
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19
Q

Describe the structure of the thyroid follicle.

A
  • composed of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
  • centre filled with colloid (contains concentrated protein called thyroglobulin).
  • parafollicular cells lie between the follicles.
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20
Q

Where are parafollicular cells found, and what do they secrete?

A

Lie between thyroid follicles and release calcitonin

21
Q

Name the hormones produced by the thyroid gland, their chemical class and the effects on their target organs.

A

Triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine

  • Amino acid derivative
  • Most cells of the body
  • Increased metabolic rate; essential for normal growth and maturation

Calcitonin

  • Polypeptide
  • Bone
  • Decreased rate of breakdown of bone by osteoclasts; prevention of a large increase in blood Calcium levels
22
Q

Describe the location of the parathyroid glands.

A

Posterior aspect of the thyroid gland, it is 4 pea-shaped bodies.

23
Q

Name the hormones produced by the parathyroid glands, their chemical class and the effects on their target organs.

A

Parathyroid Hormone

  • Polypeptide
  • Bone, kidneys, small intestine
  • Increased rate of breakdown of bone by osteoclasts; increased reabsorption of Calcium in kidneys; increased absorption of Calcium from the small intestine; increased vitamin D synthesis; increased blood calcium levels
24
Q

Discuss the control of blood calcium levels.

A

It is controlled by calcitonin and the parathyroid hormone to ensure it says within tolerable limits.

25
Q

Describe the location of the adrenal glands.

A
  • Near the superior poles of the kidneys
  • Surrounded by abundant adipose tissue
  • Composed of an inner medulla and an outer cortex
26
Q

What are the 2 regions of the adrenal gland?

A

Adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

27
Q

Name the 3 zones of the adrenal cortex, the hormones they secrete, their chemical class and the general effects on their target organs.

A

Zona Glomerulosa ; Aldosterone
- Steroid
- Kidney
- Increased Sodium reabsorption and potassium and
hydrogen excretion; enhanced water reabsorption

Zona fasciculata ; Cortisol

  • Steroid
  • Most tissues
  • Increased protein and lipid breakdown; increased glucose production; inhibition of immune response and decreased inflammation

Zona reticularis ; Androgens

  • Steroid
  • Most tissues
  • Development of some secondary sex characteristics
28
Q 
Name the hormones produced in the adrenal medulla, their chemical class and the effects
on their target organs.
A

Adrenaline/noradrenaline

  • Amino acid derivative
  • Heart, blood vessels, liver, adipose tissue
  • Increased cardiac output; increased blood flow to skeletal muscles/heart; vasoconstriction of blood vessels; increased release of glucose and fatty acids in the blood
29
Q

How is the release of hormones from the adrenal cortex and medulla controlled?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (negative feedback) and sympathetic division

30
Q

Describe the location of the pancreas to the surrounding organs.

A

Abdominal cavity; spleen is at the tail end and the duodenum is at the head end.

31
Q

Distinguish between the endocrine and exocrine components of the pancreas.

A

Exocrine:
- Secretes substances for the process of digestion through a duct from pancreas to the small intestine (duodenum).

Endocrine:
- alpha, beta and delta cells

32
Q

What are the 3 main cell types found in the Islets of Langerhan (pancreatic islets) and what hormones do they produce and determine the chemical class of these hormones.

A

alpha cells
- Glucagon -> polypeptide -> primarily liver (target) -> increased breakdown of glycogen; release of glucose into the circulatory system.

beta cells
- Insulin -> protein -> especially liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue (target) -> increased uptake and use of glucose and amino acids.

delta cells
- Somatostatin (produced in the hypothalamus) -> peptide -> alpha and beta cells (target) -> inhibition of insulin and glucose secretion.

33
Q

Discuss how glucagon and insulin control blood glucose levels.

A

Increase and decrease it through negative feedback systems

34
Q

What is the function of the endocrine system?

A

Consists of cells that secrete hormones; isolated cells scattered in tissue or cells grouped into glands

35
Q

Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.

A

Endocrine glands are ductless
- Secrete hormones into the interstitial fluid which diffuses into the nearby capillaries and travels throughout the body in the blood.
- E.g. pituitary, thyroid, ovaries, testis
Exocrine glands have ducts
- Secrete their products (non-hormonal) and so are not classed as endocrine
- E.g. sweat, salivary, lacrimal, mucosal

36
Q

What is a hormone?

A

Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules in the body.

37
Q

What is a tropic hormone?

A

Secreted from one gland to stimulate another endocrine gland.

38
Q

What general effect do hormones have on cells?

A
  1. Changing the activity of the organelles
    - Increasing production mitochondria/ ribosomes
  2. Changing the cell membrane permeability
    - Increase uptake of something
  3. Activating a particular cell mechanism
    - Increasing or decreasing production
39
Q

Define target cells, target organs.

A

The target

40
Q

1

A

2

41
Q

Distinguish between lipid-soluble and non lipid soluble hormones and how they are transported in the blood.

A 
Water soluble 
-	Can dissolve directly in plasma 
-	Travel as free hormones 
-	Degrade rapidly  
Lipid soluble 
-	Must combine with a special binding protein 
-	Keeps the hormone confined in blood vessel 
-	Process of binding is reversible
42
Q

Where do you find receptors for each of these hormones and why?

A
  • The receptor can be either
     Inside the cell (either in cytoplasm or nucleus)
     Hormone must be able to diffuse through the phospholipid membrane. Only lipid soluble can do this and uses a direct method of action
    OR
     On the outer surface membrane of target cell
     Only water soluble hormones use this method as they cannot diffuse through the phospholipid cell membrane. Must use an indirect method of action
43
Q

Discuss the mechanisms of action for lipid and water-soluble hormones.

A

Direct – lipid soluble
- Hormones that can diffuse through the membrane. i.e. lipid soluble hormones
- Steroid hormones: corticosteroids, T3, T4, testosterone, progesterone, oestrogen
- Attach to a receptor inside the cell (cytoplasm or nucleus)
- Both hormone and receptor complex then passes to nucleus (through nuclear envelope)
- Activates specific gene: parts of DNA to form RNA, cytoplasm, to ribosome  effects protein synthesis
Indirect – water soluble
- AA based (not T3/T4) and proteins (ACTH, LH, FSH, ADH, hypothalamic releasing factors, glucagon, PTH)
- Hormone (first messenger) is outside the cell
- Cell has receptors on outside of cell membrane
 Hormone attaches to receptor and activate a G protein complex which in turn alters the rate of cAMP formation by activating or inhibiting Adenyl-cyclase (an enzyme)
 Adenyl-cyclase converts ATP to cAMP (cyclic AMP)
 cAMP activates protein-kinases (regulatory enzymes)
- cyclic AMP acts as the second messenger
 changing cell permeability
 activating other enzymes (kinases)
 increasing protein synthesis
 stimulating secretion
 effect muscle contraction and relaxation
- cAMP is then degraded and the effects stop
- The neurotransmitter released by the neurons cause the target cells to release the hormones (adrenalin/ noradrenalin)

44
Q

Most hormones work by negative feedback. Give an example of this and explain.

A

Most hormones are regulated by a negative-feedback mechanism, whereby the hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once blood levels have reached a certain point and there is adequate hormone to activate the target cell. The hormone may inhibit the action of other, stimulatory hormones to prevent the secretion of the hormone in question. Thus, it is a self-limiting system. For example, thyroid hormones inhibit the secretion of TRH from the hypothalamus and TSH from the anterior pituitary.

45
Q

Give an example of a hormone that works by positive feedback.

A

Positive feedback. Some hormones, when stimulated by a tropic hormone, promote the further synthesis and secretion of the tropic hormone in addition to stimulating their target cell. In turn, this stimulates even more secretion of the original hormone.

46
Q

tropic hormone and example

A

a hormone whose action is to stimulate the release of other hormones form their target tissues

47
Q

autocrine

A

affect the same cell that secretes them

e.g. white blood cells during infection

48
Q

paracrine

A

affects neighbouring cells

e.g GUT cells that secrete histamine

49
Q

endocrine

A

affect cells some distance form source

e.g. pituitary

ISAP (5 decks)

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