module 1: evolution, genetics and experience Flashcards
(159 cards)
1
Q
zeitgeist
A
the general intellectual climate of our culture
2
Q
two main questions about behaviour (misguided)
A
(1) physiological or psychological? (2) inherited or learned?
3
Q
what was Descartes responsible for?
A
Cartesian dualism: dividing physiological (brain) from psychological (mind) and proposing the former was within the domain of science and the later, the church
4
Q
Cartesian dualism
A
Descartes’ philosophy that solved (for the time being) the dispute between science and the Roman Church
5
Q
John B. Watson was the father of _____
A
Behaviorism
6
Q
ethology
A
the study of animal behaviour in the wild
7
Q
instinctive beahviours
A
behaviours that occur in all like members of a species, even when there seems to have been no opportunity for them to have been learned
8
Q
physiological-or-psychological thinking
A
the assumption that some aspects of human psychological functioning are so complex that they could not possibly be the product of a physical brain
9
Q
arguments against physiological-or-psychological thinking (2)
A
(1) damage or stimulation of parts of the brain can produce complex psychological changes and (2) some nonhuman (mostly primate) species have done what was once considered purely psychological/ human
10
Q
asomatognosia
A
a deficiency in the awareness of parts of one’s own body
11
Q
Oliver Sacks suffered from _____
A
asomatognosia
12
Q
asomatognosia is usually a result of _____
A
damage to the right parietal lobe
13
Q
asomatognosia usually involves which side of the body?
A
left
14
Q
G. G. Gallup researched ____-______ in ______
A
self-awareness; chimpanzees
15
Q
G.G. Gallup’s experiment
A
anesthetized chimpanzees, painted their eyebrows with red dye, allowed them to wake up, reintroduced mirror, observe
16
Q
result of G.G. Gallup’s experiment
A
each chimp repeatedly touched the painted area of their eyebrow while looking in the mirror (also looked in the mirror 3x as much and some smelled their fingers)
17
Q
examples for arguments against physiological-or-psychological thinking (2)
A
(1) Oliver Sacks and (2) G.G. Gallup
18
Q
“nature” and “nurture” are not simply _____ because they ______
A
additive; interact
19
Q
factors in the biopsychological model of behaviour (3)
A
(1) genetic endowment, (2) experience and (3) perception of the current situation
20
Q
when did Darwin publish “On the Origin of Species”
A
1859
21
Q
evolve
A
undergo gradual orderly change
22
Q
evolution occurs through ______ ______
A
natural selection
23
Q
fitness
A
the ability of an organism to survive and contribute its genes to the next generation
24
Q
examples of evolutionary significant behaviours (2)
A
(1) social dominance and (2) courtship displays
25
why social dominance is important in evolution (2)
(1) dominant males may copulate more, making them more effective in passing on their characteristics and (2) dominant females are sometimes more likely to produce more and healthier offspring
26
when did complex multicellular water-dwelling organisms first appear on earth?
about 600 million years ago
27
chordates
animals with dorsal nerve cords
28
when did the first chordates evolve?
about 450 million years ago
29
chordates are an example of a ____
phyla
30
how many phyla are there?
20
31
first chordates with spinal bones to protect their dorsal nerve cords evolved about _____ years after the first chordates
25 million years
32
spinal bones are called _____
vertebrae
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chordates with vertebrae are called _____
vertebrates
34
what were the first vertebrates
primitive bony fishes
35
how many classes of vertebrates currently exist?
seven (3 fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals)
36
when did the first bony fish start to venture out of the water?
about 410 million years ago
37
advantages of fish that could survive on land for brief periods of time (2)
(1) escape from stagnant pools to nearby fresh water and (2) terrestrial food sources
38
when did amphibians first evolve?
about 400 million years ago
39
larval forms of amphibians must live in ____
water
40
when did reptiles first evolve and from what?
300 million years ago; amphibians
41
what were the distinct features of reptiles? (2)
(1) shell-covered eggs and (2) dry scales
42
when did mammals evolve and from what?
about 180 million years ago; reptiles
43
what were the distinct features of mammals? (2)
(1) mammary glands to feed young and (2) eventually birthing without a shell
44
how many different orders of mammals exist?
about 20
45
what order are humans part of?
primates
46
how many families of primates are there?
about 16
47
characteristics of apes (5)
(1) long arms, (2) grasping hind feet that are specialized for arboreal travel, (3) opposable thumbs that are not long enough to be of much use for precise manipulation, (4) no tail, (5) can walk upright for short distances
48
primates of the tribe that includes humans are the ____
hominini
49
which genera are in hominini? (6)
(1) australopithecus, (2) paranthropus, (3) sahelanthropus, (4) orrorin, (5) pan and (6) homo
50
how many species does the genus "homo" have and how many are extinct?
8; 7
51
the homo species that is not extinct is ___ ____
Homo sapiens
52
when did the australopithecines evolve and where?
about 4 million years ago; Africa
53
when did the first Homo species evolve and from what?
(2-2.8 million years ago; from one species of Australopithecus
54
distinct feature of the Homo genus
large brain cavity (between size of Australopithecus and modern humans)
55
when did modern humans replace the early Homo species?
about 275 000 years ago
56
when did modern humans begin to migrate out of Africa?
about 130 000 years ago
57
big three human attributes
large brain, upright posture and free hands with an opposable thumbs
58
when did artistic products appear?
about 40 000 years ago
59
when did ranching and farming appear?
about 10 000 years ago
60
when was writing invented?
about 7500 years ago
61
commonly misunderstood points about evolution (7)
(1) evolution does not proceed in a single line, (2) humans have little reason to claim evolutionary supremacy, (3) evolution does not progress to preordained perfection, (4) not all existing behaviours or structures are adaptive (spandrels), (5) not all existing adaptive characteristics evolved to perform their current function (exaptations), (6) similarities among species do not necessarily mean that the species have common evolutionary origins, (7) Homo sapiens mated with the other Homo species (we are the offspring of many Homo populations that once coexisted)
62
spandrels
incidental nonadaptive evolutionary by-products
63
exaptations
characteristics evolved to serve one function and were alter co-opted to serve another
64
homologous structures
structures that are similar because they have a common evolutionary origin
65
analogous structures
structures that are similar but do not have a common evolutionary origin
66
convergent evolution
evolution in unrelated species of similar solutions to the same environmental demands
67
early research on the evolution of the human brain focused on ____
size (because it was thought that brain size and intellectual capacity were closely linked)
68
issues with relating brain size to intellectual capacity (2)
(1) modern humans do not have biggest brains (despite us thinking we have the most intellectual capacity) and (2) the brain sizes of acclaimed intellectuals were found to be unremarkable
69
human brains weigh approximately ____
1350 grams (1000-2000 grams)
70
order of vertebrate evolution
fishes without backbones, bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and finally mammals
71
percent of human body weight that is brain
about 2.33%
72
general function of the brain stem
regulates reflex activities that are critical for survival
73
general function of the cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres)
complex adaptive processes such as learning, perception and motivation
74
convolutions
folds on the cerebral surface
75
convolutions increase the ___ ____ of the cerebral cortex
surface area
76
important points about the evolution of the human brain (3)
(1) size has increased, (2) most of the size increase has been in the cerebrum and (3) an increase in the number of convolutions
77
evolutionary psychology
an attempt to understand human behaviours through a consideration of the pressures that led to their evolution
78
mating bonds
enduring mating realtionships
79
promiscuity
a mating arrangement in which the members of both sexes indiscriminately copulate with many different partners during each mating period
80
why do mammals tend to form mating bonds?
Trivers (1972): the evolution of mate bonding in many mammalian species to the fact that female mammals give birth to relatively small numbers of helpless, slow-developing young, so it's adaptive for males to stick around to increase chances the offspring will develop successfully
81
polygyny
one male forms mating bonds with more than one female
82
what is the most common pattern of mate bonding in mammals?
polygyny (because females make a greater contribution to the rearing of their young than males)
83
consequence of polygyny
females can only produces a few offspring whereas males can sire MANY
84
polyandry
one female forms mating bonds with more than one male
85
when does polyandry occur?
when males of the species contribute more to reproduction than the females (eg. seahorse)
86
what percent of mammalian species are monogamous?
about 9%
87
monogamy
mate-bonding pattern in which enduring bonds are formed between one male and one female
88
monogamy evolved in species where....
females could raise more and more fit young if they had undivided help
89
points against humans as monogamous (3)
(1) many human cultures do not practice monogamy, (2) even in Western cultures most people bond with more than one partner during their lives and (3) infidelity is common
90
example of a truly monogamous species
Geese
91
dichotomous traits
occur in one form or the other, never in combination
92
true-breeding lines
interbred members always produce offspring with the same trait, generation after generation
93
gene
inherited factor
94
allele
genes that control the same trait
95
genotype
the traits that it can pass on to its offspring through its genetic material
96
homozygous
having two identical genes for a trait
97
heterozygous
having two different genes for a trait
98
chromosomes
threadlike structures in the nucleus of each cell
99
gametes
egg and sperm cells
100
meiosis
the process of cell division that produces gametes
101
zygote
a fertilized cell
102
genetic recombination
when chromosome pairs line up and exchange sections at random points
103
mitosis
cell division in the body (other than gametes)
104
chromosomes are ____-stranded
double
105
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a sequence of ____
nucleotide bases attached to a chain of phosphate and deoxyribose
106
nucleotide bases (4)
(1) adenine, (2) thymine, (3) guanine and (4) cytosine
107
pairs of nucleotide bases (2)
(1) adenine and thymine and (2) guanine and cytosine
108
replication
a critical process of the DNA molecule; doubling of genetic material before division
109
mutations
accidental alterations in individual genes
110
sex-linked traits
traits influenced by genes on the sex chromosomes
111
dominant sex-linked traits are more common in ___
females
112
recessive sex-linked traits are more common in ___
males
113
proteins
long chains of amino acides
114
function of proteins
control the physiological activities of cells and are important components of cellular structure
115
enhancers
stretches of DNA whose function is to determine whether particular structural genes initiate the synthesis of proteins and at what rate (gene expression)
116
transcription factors
proteins that bind to DNA and influence the extent to which genes are expressed
117
RNA has ___ instead of thymine
uracil
118
messenger RNA
the strand of transcribed RNA made from the template DNA
119
mRNA attaches to a ____ outside of the nucleus
ribosome
120
codon
three consecutive nucleotide bases along the mRNA strand
121
function of a codon
instructs the ribosome to add 1 of 20 different kinds of amino acids to the protein it is constructing
122
transfer RNA
carries amino acid to the ribosome that is translating the mRNA
123
when did the Human Genome Project start?
1990
124
how many bases compose human chromosomes?
3 billion
125
major contributions of the Human Genome Project (3)
(1) new techniques for studying DNA were developed, (2) humans have relatively few genes and (3) many variations in the human genome related to particular diseased have been identified, however it has proven to be less useful than anticipated
126
how many genes do humans have?
about 20 000
127
what percent of human DNA is protein-encoding genes?
about 1%
128
human proteome
map of the entire set of proteins encoded for by our genes
129
epigenetics
the study of all mechanisms of inheritance other than the genetic code and its expression
130
what conditions set the stage for the rise of epigenetics? (4)
(1) HGP discovered that genes constitute only 1% of human DNA, (2) only 1.2% of RNA molecules were for protein-encoding (only a minor function), (3) unknown mechanisms by which gene-experience interactions happen and (4) new research techniques at the turn of the century (from HGP)
131
"junk" DNA has functions including
controlling the expression of nearby genes
132
DNA methylations
the reaction that occurs when a methyl group attaches to a DNA molecule, usually at cytosine sites in mammals
133
histone remodelings
the reaction that occurs when histones change their shape and in so doing influence the shape of the adjacent DNA
134
histones
proteins around which DNA is coiled
135
mechanisms of gene expression (2)
(1) DNA methylation and (2) histone remodeling
136
RNA editing
regulation of gene expression by acting on messenger RNA rather than genes (ie. cleaving, splicing)
137
Transgenerational epigenetics
subfield of epigenetic that examines the transmission of experiences via epigenetic mechanisms across generations
138
ontogeny
the development of individuals over their life span
139
phylogeny
the evolutionary development of species through the ages
140
epigenetics examples (3)
(1) maze-bright vs maze-dull rats, (2) phenylketonuria and (3) development of birdsong
141
phenylketonuria (PKU)
neurological disorder that causes intellectual disability, vomiting, seizures, hyperactivity, irritability and brain damage; recessive; 1/10000 caucasian children
142
cause of PKU
lack of phenylalanine hydroxylase means phyenylalanine doesn't get converted into tyrosine, leads to high levels of phenylpyruvic acid; dopamine is also low because it gets synthesized from tyrosine
143
sensitive period
the period, usually early on, during which a particular experience must occur to have a major effect on the development of a trait
144
environmental factor that can influence the effects of PKU if experienced in the sensitive period
diet (phenylalanine-restricted)
145
sensory phase (birdsong development)
begins several days after hatching, memories are formed of the adult songs they hear
146
sensorimotor phase (songbird development)
juvenile males begin to twitter subsongs, rambling vocalizations of subsongs are gradually refined
147
age-limited learners
adult songs, once crystallized, remain unchanged for the rest of the birds' lives (eg. male zebra finches)
148
open-ended learners
able to add new songs to their repertoire throughout their lives (eg. male canaries)
149
descending motor pathway of a canary
descends from the high vocal center on each side of the brain to the syrinx (voice box) on the same side (mediates song production)
150
anterior forebrain pathway of a canary
mediates song learning
151
which side of the descending motor pathway plays a more important role in canary singing?
left (duplicates the left-hemisphere dominance for language in humans)
152
how much bigger is the high vocal center in male canaries compared to females?
4 times
153
what happens to the song-control structures of male canaries in the spring?
it doubles in size as it prepares its new repertoire of songs for the summer (shrinks back in fall); increased daylight causes elevated testosterone which leads to the burst of growth
154
heritability estimate
a numerical estimate of the proportion of variability that occurred in a particular trait in a particular study as a result of the genetic variation in that study
155
complex traits and behaviours in representative Western samples usable have heritability estimates between ___ and ___ percent
40-80%
156
twin studies of epigenetic effects
repeatedly assessing the DNA of monozygotic twins to document epigenetic differences that develop
157
buccal cells
cells of the lining of the mouth
158
disease-discordant monozygotic twin studies
searching for epigenetic differences in DNA areas thought to be involved in the disorder
159
Turkheimer et al. (2003) showed that the heritability estimates for intelligence in middle-high SES twins was ___% while only ___% in low SES families
70; 10
