MODULE #2 Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
Griffiths (2013) provided a summary major factors that influence general police decision-making in any given encounter (General Factors Influencing Police Decision-Making)
(4)
A
(1) The policing task environment,
(2) The person of interest,
(3) The individual police officer, and
(4) Visibility of the decision.
2
Q
policing task environment refers to: (2)
A
(1) the environment in which a police officer is working.
(2) High-density downtown environments comprised of ethnically diverse populations will present significantly different challenges to police officers than remote, rural areas
3
Q
The person of interest
2
A
(1) The specific attitudes and behaviours of the person confronted by police will also affect police decision-making.
(2) A person pulled over for speeding who is polite and respectful may be treated differently by a police officer than someone who is belligerent and confrontational.
4
Q
Visibility of the decision
A
technology and phone cameras have increased the visibility of police decision-making
5
Q
Griffiths (2015) identifies several other factors influencing police decisions
(3)
A
(1) community/political pressure,
(2) the seriousness of the alleged offence, and
(3) laws and policies.
6
Q
Individual Police Officers and Decision-Making Constructs (2)
A
(1) the attitudes and beliefs of individual police officers may also influence decision-making in any encounter.
(2) Each individual officer will enter an encounter with his or her own biases and interactional styles that will impact the direction and/or outcome of that encounter.
7
Q
people routinely use decision-making shortcuts to cut through complex information, often focusing on specific aspects of a problem to make decisions. Griffiths has identified two types of decision-making strategies employed by police-officers:
A
(1) typifications
(2) recipes for action
8
Q
typifications (2)
A
(1) Refers to the various ways in which police officers quickly categorize The people and situations they encounter
(2) could include any visual cue that a police officer could use to draw quick inferences about an individual or a situation.
9
Q
Recipes for action
A
The actions taken and decisions made by police officers in various encounters
10
Q
One of the concerns that quickly emerge when we look at typficiations and recipes for action in the context of police decision-making is:
A
that they are often informed by inaccurate stereotypes
11
Q
Discretion
A
refers to the freedom of police officers to use their judgment and choose among the options when confronted with the need to make a decision
12
Q
Police exercise discretion: (7)
A
(1) To arrest
(2) To stop, question, or frisk
(3) To use physical force
(4) To use deadly force
(5) To investigate a complaint as a crime
(6) To use certain enforcement tactics
(7) To write traffic tickets
13
Q
selective (or situational) enforcement (3)
A
(1) the discretionary enforcement due to the inability of police officers to enforce all of the laws all of the time
(2) if the police enforced every law all the time they would quickly become overwhelmed and courts would face a large backlog.
(3) Many violations of law are minor and the fact that our expectations of what police do extends beyond crime-fighting to include community services presumes that police officers should often work with the public to resolve concerns without progressing further into the justice system.
14
Q
In his book Urban Justice, Herbert Jacob (1973, p. 27) outlined several major categories of factors that could influence police discretionary decision-making: (4)
A
- Characteristics of the Crime
- Relationship between alleged criminal and victim
- Relationship between police and the criminal or victim
- Department or legal policies
15
Q
Characteristics of the Crime
A
Serious or violent crimes are more likely to result in arrest
16
Q
Relationship between police and the criminal or victim
A
Police may be less likely to make an arrest in encounters where the victim and offender know each other
17
Q
Relationship between police and the criminal or victim
A
Citizens who are respectful in their encounters with police officers may be less likely to be arrested
18
Q
Department or legal policies (2)
A
- Police department may differentially emphasize arrests for certain behaviours.
- Departments emphasizing ‘broken windows’ policing may encourage arrests for nuisance behaviours
19
Q
According to Goff (2017), police officers generally consider three factors in their day-to-day operations:
A
- The crime
- The attitude of the citizen
- Standards and policies
20
Q
The crime
A
The type and seriousness of crime being investigated plays a great role in determining whether police will exercise their legal authority.
21
Q
The attitude of the citizen:
A
The attitude of the citizen involved in the police encounter. Research suggests that disrespectful or defiant behaviour will often trigger the police to exercise their legal authority
22
Q
Standards and Policies as it relates to use of discretion: (2)
A
- Policing standards and departmental policies can be enacted that limits the use of discretion in certain situations.
- Many jurisdictions employ a zero-tolerance policy for 911 calls for alleged incidents of domestic violence leaving police officers with no option but to make an arrest and lay charges.
23
Q
One of the most important areas of police discretion is:
A
the use of force in law enforcement encounters
24
Q
In Canada, the use of force by police officers is governed by: (2)
A
(1) statutes and case law.
(2) Several sections of the Criminal Code of Canada permit the use of force by police officers.
25
The Supreme Court of Canada reiterated that the use of force by police officers should be:
constrained by principles of “proportionality, necessity, and reasonable”
26
force options model refers to
the working model or continuum of use of force options in relation to threats posed that forms the basis of most police training models in Canada
27
force options model (2)
(1) sets out what an appropriate level of force is in response to particular levels of threat
(2) also provides police administrators and judicial review personnel with criteria for evaluating the appropriateness of use of force decisions by police officers
28
In general most police models of use of force in Canada are based on the:
one-plus-one standard
29
one-plus-one standard
allows police officers to use one higher level of force than that with which they are confronted.
30
Less lethal force options
refer to control techniques that are unlikely to cause death or serious injury
31
While the Taser is considered a non-lethal force option its employment by police services is not without controversy.
(3)
(1) Police Implementation and Policy
(2) Effectiveness
(3) Physiological impact
32
Controversy of Police Implementation and Policy regarding the taser (2)
(1) Some U.S. reports indicate that the categorization of the Taser on use of force continuums vary across police services.
(2) Other reports suggest that the Taser is disproportionately employed against male African American or Hispanic males and is frequently used when suspects exhibit signs of mental illness.
33
Controversy of Effectiveness of the taser (2)
(1) As a non-lethal force option does the Taser effectively control or subdue suspects?
(2) Research generally indicates that the use of the Taser is associated with reductions in injuries in police-citizen encounters.
34
Controversy of Physiological Impact of the taser
| 2
(1) As a non-lethal force option the Taser should not produce any long-term harmful effects when administered.
(2) Studies of Taser-proximate deaths in police-citizen encounters have found that the Taser was not listed as a direct cause of death in any cases
35
Braidwood Inquiry
| 3
(1) would eventually conclude that the RCMP officers failed to make any real effort to de-escalate the situation and that there was no justification in tasering Dziekanski.
(2) In addition, the final report pointed to conflicting reports offered by the officers involved.
(3) Two RCMP officers – Monty Robinson and Kwesi Millington – were later convicted of perjury.
36
What three extralegal factors influencing police decision making does Schulenberg (2016) identify?
(1) mental health status
(2) whether a citizen under the influence of alcohol or drugs increases the likelihood of an arrest
(3) definitions and the influence of citizen demeanour
37
What three reasons for the need for research on factors affecting the use of police discretion does Schulenburg (2016) identify?
(1) Mobile crisis teams consisting of a mental health professional riding with a police officer are prevalent but continue to be restricted in their ability to respond to the higher number of PMI-related calls. This results in patrol officers remaining the primary responders and decision–makers with knowledge based on recruit training and field experience
(2) The current mental health training is not as effective as we would like to believe. Thus, factors other than training Content are influencing the decision-making process (for example substance abuse, demeanour)
(3) there are complications created by an inability to keep pace with the number of officers and resources required to respond to calls for service.
38
Describe the methodology used for the study in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone?
Collected systematic social observation data on police decision-making and the use of discretion
39
Who were the participants in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (2)
(1) regional police service with three urban and two rural divisions serving a population of 536,793
(2) The analysis included only those citizens identified as a suspect where the police were in a position to issue a citation or lay a criminal charge and were over 18 years of age
40
Describe the procedure used in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (6)
(1) conducted 637 hours of ride alongside with patrol officers in all divisions from November 2011 to June 2012
(2) observational hours did not include time in roll call, cellblock, or other activities while not on active patrol.
(3) ride along data were collected on the early or late afternoon shifts from Thursday to Sunday.
(4) The ride along, encounter, and citizen forms were printed in advance and filled out in the car after each call while the officer completed his or her paperwork
(5) while The data analysis of the field notes and narratives used the constant comparison method, the intrarater reliability test for dependability was employed
(6) qualitative coding occurred over a period of five weeks.
41
What measures and independent variables were included in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (3)
(1) encounter characteristics such as dispatched calls & offence seriousness
(2) citizen characteristics
(3) Situational factors such as being under the influence of alcohol or drugs, disrespect toward the officer
42
What was the dependent variable in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone?
Whether an officer lays a criminal charge or issues a citation when reasonable grounds exist to do so
43
What factors influenced police discretion in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (7)
(1) dispatched calls
(2) more likely to formally sanction males but less likely to do so with younger citizens
(3) more likely to charge or issue a citation if the Citizen is under the influence of alcohol or drugs
(4) more likely to charge or issue A citation if disrespectful of the officer’s
authority
(5) more likely to charge if it was a serious offence
(6) prior record
(7) uncooperative
44
What role did mental health status play in police decision-making in Police Decision-making in the Gray Zone? (9)
(1) when the label of mentally ill is activated, verbal and physical containment occurs.
(2) following containment is the use of de-escalation techniques, checks on well-being, and ensuring the safety of all parties and use investigative detentions.
(3) The complainant or witnesses’ side of the story is gathered first, then officers ask the PMI for their account of events
(4) additional record searches are conducted to verify versions of events and history.
(5) PMIs receive warnings in the form of an admonishment similar to warnings given to juveniles rather than offence–related statements
(6) PMIs receive a higher number and more restrictive conditions for release
(7) officers routinely made recommendations for the type of court intervention, whether mental health court is appropriate, and explained the need for additional release conditions on a promise to appear to avoid a repeat call for service that shift.
(8) officers are much more likely to work toward a resolution that ceases the behaviour rather than criminalization
(9) on average, the circumstances where discretion is less likely to be used is when citizens are perceived as a danger to themselves or others, under the influence, or disrespectful, which are all behaviours that are potentially interpreted as symptomatic of a mental illness
45
In the paper: The Police Officer’s Dilemma: A Decade of Research on Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot, What sociological evidence do the authors review? Describe briefly.
(4)
1. Data from the Department of Justice (DOJ, 2001) indicate that, per capita, police are roughly five times more likely to shoot a Black person than a White person.
2. sociological research consistently shows a discrepancy such that officers use greater force (both lethal and non-lethal) when the suspect is Black rather than White.
3. evidence seems to suggest that law enforcement may be biased when employing lethal force against Black suspects.
4. Findings seem to suggest that the discrepancy in use of force is warranted and can be explained in terms of differences between Whites and Blacks in criminal activity.
46
According to experimental or lab research, what role does racial bias play in police decision-making?
(4)
(1) showed no bias in their decision
criteria, but there was evidence of bias in officers’ response times.
(2) officers were faster to shoot armed targets when they were Black (rather than White), and they were faster to choose a don’t-shoot response if an unarmed target was White (rather than Black).
(3) Bias suggests that, when confronted with a Black target, officers may activate racial stereotypes related to threat.
(4) In line with this possibility, response
time bias was greatest among officers whose districts were characterized by a large (urban) population, a high rate of violent crime, and a greater concentration of Blacks and other minorities – environments likely to reinforce racial stereotypes.
47
What are threat-relevant stereotypes and what role do they play in the police decision to shoot?
(2)
1. the decision to shoot stems from stereotypic associations connecting Blacks to the concepts of danger and threat in our culture.
2. greater awareness of stereotypes linking Blacks with danger showed more pronounced threat-like responses to Black targets, which in turn led them to show more bias when making the decision to shoot.
48
According to the researchers, what other factors need to be considered in translating lab research to police practice?
1. Fatigue
| 2. Fear & arousal
49
Gudjonsson (2002) explains the main purpose of investigative interviewing as:
eliciting “reliable, accurate and legally admissible information” from suspects, victims, and witness to find the facts within the context of a crime investigation.
50
The information gathered through investigative interviewing constitutes
around eighty percent of all evidence gathered throughout a typical crime investigation, while the “real and documentary evidence” (i.e. physical evidence such as objects and documents gathered to prove or disprove the guilt in an investigation) can constitute the remaining twenty percent of all evidence
51
Interview Vs. Interrogation
| 3
(1) Interviewing has been used to refer to all types of information gathering while interrogation is only associated with the interviewing of suspects.
(2) The objective of an interview is to gain information, the objective of an interrogation is to gain a confession.
(3) The goal of interviewing is to collect truthful data to be used for informed decision-making and just action-taking. An interrogation, is a face-to-face meeting with a subject with the distinct objective of gaining admission or a confession in a real or apparent violation of law or policy.
52
the two mostly used investigative interviewing techniques:
(1) Reid Model of Interrogation
| (2) PEACE Model of Interviewing
53
interrogation
refers to an interview process with a suspect of an alleged crime that is intended to gather more information about the crime and to induce a confession
54
Confession
refers to an informal admission made to a person in authority
55
The fact that interrogations are in part designed to elicit confessions from suspects is important to note:
(2)
(1) the interrogation process is inherently confrontational in nature.
(2) confession evidence has a significant impact on adjudication decisions in criminal courts and is in one of the strongest predictors of verdicts in trial simulation studies
56
One of the most common approaches to interrogations in North America
The Reid Model of Interrogation
57
Reid Model of Interrogation
developed by polygrapher John Reid, is a three-component interrogation process that is designed to make the perceived consequences of a confession more desirable than the anxiety generated by lying to authorities
58
How many stages are in the Reid mode?
9
59
Stage 1 of the Reid Model
| 2
(1) Gather evidence related to the crime
| (2) Interview witnesses and victims
60
Stage 2 of the Reid Model
Conduct non-accusatory interview of suspect to evaluate evidence or deception
61
Stage 3 of the Reid Model
Conduct an accusatorial interrogation of suspect if the suspect is perceived to be guilty over a nine-step procedure
62
At Stage 3, the Reid Model outlines nine steps that interrogating police officers can adopt to induce a confession from suspects. The techniques that are recommended across these nine steps can be organized into two broad categories
minimization techniques and maximization techniques.
63
Minimization techniques
refer to “soft sell” tactics used in interrogation that are intended to reduce the perceived consequences of confessing to the crime
64
maximization techniques
are “scare tactics” that are intended to increase the perceived costs of not confessing and coerce suspects into confessing
65
Two examples of minimization techniques
(1) Blaming the victim
| (2) sympathizing with the subject
66
Two examples of maximization techniques
(1) Exaggerated claims about evidence
| (2) Reducing the physical distance between the suspect and interrogator
67
The Reid Model of Model of Interrogation has been the subject of frequent criticism. Psychologist Joanna Pozzulo and her colleagues (2015) have outlined three major areas of concern:
(1) the ability of law enforcement officers to detect deception,
(2) confirmation bias, and
(3) the impact of coercive and/or suggestive interrogation practices on false confessions
68
Confirmation bias (or investigator bias)
| 2
(1) refers to the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms our personal expectations or hypotheses.
(2) Psychological research suggests that when have a formed opinion before we begin searching for information we have a tendency to selectively search for information that supports our preconceptions often ignoring contradictory facts.
69
The biggest concern that has been raised about coercive nature of the Reid Model of Interrogation is:
(2)
(1) the potential for false confessions.
(2) According to the Innocence Project, approximately 25% of individuals wrongfully convicted in the United States later exonerated by DNA evidence had provided a false confession.
70
A typology of false confessions proposed by Kassin and Wrightsman (1985)
(3)
(1) Voluntary
(2) coerced compliant
(3) coerced internalized
71
Voluntary False Confessions (2)
(1) A false confession that is provided without any elicitation from the police
(2) desire for notoriety, mental illness, guilt for unpunished crimes
72
Coerced compliant confessions
| (2)
(1) results from a desire to escape a coercive interrogation environment or gain a benefit promised by police
(2) to escape further interrogation, gain a promised benefit, avoid threatened punishment
73
Coerced internalized false confession (2)
(1) Results from suggestive interrogation techniques whereby the confessor actually comes to believe he or she committed the crime
(2) psychologically vulnerable, history of substance abuse, intellectual disability
74
PEACE Model of Interrogations
is a non-accusatorial, information-gathering approach to investigative interviewing that is based on the assumption that subjects will be increasingly likely to cooperate when they are relaxed and have rapport with the interviewer
75
PEACE stands for:
```
Preparation and Planning
Engage and Explain
Account, Clarify, and Challenge
Closure
Evaluation
```
76
Preparation and Planning
the investigators extensively research both the crime and the suspect and prepare their opening and follow-up questions based on the existing evidence
77
Engage and Explain
the interviewers introduce themselves to the suspect, explain the purpose of the interview and provide any necessary legal cautions, and engage them in conversation to establish rapport.
78
Account, clarify and challenge
The interviewers then elicit the suspect’s account of the events in question using various non-coercive techniques.
79
Closure
the interviewers summarize the major points and provide the suspect with an opportunity to clarify or add information
80
Evaluation (PEACE Model)
The interviewers then evaluate the information obtained from the process.
81
is a major component of police interviewing
The ability to detect deception
82
Applied social psychologist Aldert Vrij (2008) has defined deception as
a successful or unsuccessful deliberate attempt, without forewarning, to create in another a belief which the communicator considers to be untrue
83
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
is responsible for regulating automatic or involuntary functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and skin conductance.
84
The polygraph is based on an assumption that
our levels of emotional arousal – increases in heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance activity – are likely to be elevated when we are lying.
85
lie detection efforts have often relied on:
| 3
(1) stereotypes or myths about lying and expected behaviours.
(2) Investigators often assume that there is a “Pinocchio’s nose” particularly focusing on non-verbal cues such as gaze aversion, posture or fidgeting, and nervousness as indicators of deception.
(3) However, a large body of empirical research offers little support for the utility of these indicators
86
To date, forensic psychologists have carried out a large body of research exploring the ability of criminal justice personnel to detect deception in others. Most of this research suggests that:
on average, the majority of law enforcement and criminal justice personnel are not particularly good at correctly identifying a liar
87
Non-Verbal Indicators of Deception (2)
(1) Emotional Facial Expression
| (2) Blink rate
88
Emotional facial expression (2)
(1) There is some empirical research that suggests that liars will often attempt to manipulate their facial expressions to appear consistent with their fabricated narratives.
(2) Psychologist Paul Ekman has argued that we can detect deception by monitoring microexpressions
89
Microexpressions (3)
(1) brief leaks in genuine emotions that manifest in the form of half- or full-face emotional expressions for a fraction of a second
(2) Research suggests that microexpressions are easier to spot when the liar is trying to hide high-intensity emotions as compared to low-intensity emotions.
(3) However, microexpressions are not exclusive to deceptive emotions and sometimes surface in genuine expressions.
90
Blink rate (4)
(1) The use of the rate of blinking as an indicator of deception is controversial.
(2) There is some empirical support showing that liars on average blink more than people telling the truth, but the average differences are statistically small.
(3) Moreover it is believed that blink rate changes under a very specific set of circumstances.
(4) That is, liars may be more likely to blink when they are trying to conceal their emotional responses specifically to questions pertaining directly to the crime.
91
Interviewing Witnesses: Common Errors in Interviewing (4)
(1) Asking too many short-answer questions
(2) Inappropriate sequencing of questions
(3) Interrupting the witness
(4) Asking leading questions
92
Cognitive Interview (2)
(1) is a formal interview procedure, based on cognitive and social psychological theory, designed to enhance information generation from a witness’ memory.
(2) As a police interview protocol, the CI procedure was designed to assist with interviewing cooperative witnesses, not suspects
93
The Cognitive Interview protocol is divided into several steps:
(5)
(1) Rapport building
(2) Mental reconstruction of crime
(3) recall crime in different temporal orders
(4) Recall and report and relevant detail
(5) Recall crime from different perspectives
94
The Cognitive Interview: Building Rapport (2)
(1) An introduction is made that establishes a relationship between the witness and the interviewer
(2) Interviewer explains the process to the witness
95
The Cognitive Interview: Mental reconstruction of crime
| 2
(1) Witness is asked to reconstruct the physical and personal context surrounding the crime
(2) Visualize the surroundings, describe their general activities leading up to the crime
96
The Cognitive Interview: Recall crime in different temporal orders
Witness is asked to recall the event in different temporal orders (e.g. start from the end and work backwards this time)
97
The Cognitive Interview: Recall and report any relevant detail
Witnesses are prompted to report any detail that may be relevant to the crime including partial or incomplete information
98
The Cognitive Interview: Recall crime from different perspectives
Witnesses are asked to recall the crime from different perspectives and locations
99
What are the two goals of police interrogation?
(1) The main goal is to obtain a confession which is powerful evidence in court.
(2) gain information to further the investigation such as location of evidence, co-conspirators, or exact details of crime
100
Discuss historical Police interrogations (3)
(1) in the mid-1900s they used third-degree tactics such as whipping or rubber hoses and phonebooks
(2) 1980 stun guns used by NYPD
(3) today they use subtle psychological tactics and trickery such as lying about physical evidence, use of hypotheticals, implied threats to family members, or minimization of the seriousness of the crime
101
Steps in the Reid Technique
| 9
(1) Direct positive confrontation - The interrogator considers whether the suspect is emotional or non-emotional
(2) theme development
(3) Do not allow denials
(4) overcoming objections
(5) retain suspect’s attention
(6) handling passiveness
(7) alternative questioning
(8) Relate offence details
(9) create written confession
102
Step 1 in Reid Technique: Direct positive confrontation
| 4
1. State certainty in guilt
2. Use fabricated or real evidence
3. Pause, observe, repeat confrontation
4. Passive reaction = deception
5. The interrogator considers whether the suspect is emotional or non-emotional
103
Emotional suspect
- feels
- interrogator approach
- appeal to
(1) Feels Distress and remorse
(2) interrogator approach is sympathetic
(3) appeal to the conscience
104
Non-Emotional suspect
- feels
- interrogator approach
- appeal to
(1) feels nothing particularly
(2) The interrogator approach is factual analysis
(3) appeal to reasoning/common sense
105
Theme development in the Reid technique (2)
1. Offer excuses/explanations for offence
| 2. Allow for justification and rationalization
106
What are some possible themes for emotional suspects?
| 5
1. Anyone in this situation would have done the same
2. Minimize crime’s moral seriousness
3. Suggest morally acceptable reasons
4. Condemned others (for example the victims)
5. Praise and flattery
107
Themes for non-emotional suspects (5)
1. Catch them in a lie
2. Get suspect associated with crime scene
3. Non-criminal intent behind act
4. No point in denying involvement
5. Play one co-offender off the other
108
Step 3 in Reid Model: do not allow denials
| 4
1. Interrupt any attempted denials
2. Repeated denials = less likely to confess
3. An innocent subject will get very spontaneous, forceful, Eye contact
4. A guilty suspect will be hesitant and defensive
109
Step 4 Reid Model - overcoming objections (3)
1. allow objection and return to theme
2. Innocent suspect continues with original denials
3. guilty suspect moves from denials to objections
110
Step 5 of Reid model - retain suspect’s attention (2)
1. Deal with withdrawal by the suspect
2. Use a variety of behaviours to re-engage the suspect
- move closer
- lean forward
- mention first name
- touch lightly
- make eye contact
111
Step 6 of the Reid model - handling passiveness (4)
1. Suspect is about to give in and confess
2. Slumped shoulders
3. crying or blank stare
4. Focus on Main theme and urge suspect to come clean by using sympathy and understanding
112
Step 7 of the Reid Model - alternative questioning (4)
1. Present 2 explanations for the crime: One reprehensible and one face-saving
2. Both produce a confession!
3. Most important component of Reid
- problem for many suspects
4. Timing is critical
113
What step in the Reid model is the most important and why?
Step 7 Alternative question because the suspect is broken down and and has to choose between these incriminating alternatives. if successful will get the confession.
114
Step 8 of the Reid Model - Relate offence details
Garner Full details of the crime
115
Step 9 of the Reid technique - create written confession(2)
1. Written and signed confession is more incriminating
| 2. Less important with videotaped confession
116
What is the psychology behind the Reid Model? (2)
1. Confessing is difficult and unnatural as there are internal and external concerns
2. Goals are to reduce concerns through minimization and rationalizations
117
Primacy effect
The information we learn first about another person disproportionately shapes our understanding of them afterward
118
Why was the PEACE model introduced? (2)
(1) Created in the U.K. as a response to false confessions and poor interviewing generally
(2) more of information gathering rather than eliciting a confession
119
Stage 1 - PEACE MODEL - Preparation & Planning (3)
(1) Interviewee characteristics
(2) Contribution to investigation
(3) Questions you want to ask
120
Stage 2- PEACE MODE - Engage & Explain (4)
(1) Introduction
(2) Address needs (e.g. washroom, water)
(3) Reason, Rights, Route Map, and routines
(4) No confrontation or evidence up front
121
Stage 3 Peace Model - Account (3)
(1) Get a free narrative - don't interrupt
(2) Probe the account - open, probe, summarize
(3) Challenge in a calm manner if needed by using evidence and inquisitorial approach
122
Stage 4 Peace Model - Closure (3)
(1) Review the account
(2) make sure the interviewee questions are answered
(3) Get/give contact information
123
Stage 5 Peace Model - Evaluation (3)
(1) Consider info gained
(2) evaluate own performance
(3) Get supervisor to evaluate - should videotape all interviews
124
Differences between Reid & PEACE model of interviewing
| 5
(1) PEACE is an open-minded approach and no attempt to detect deception and lets everyone tell their side of the story
(2) PEACE Ties person into story vs. presenting up-front. Gets person to tell their story and give as much detail as possible; if needed they can challenge at the end with the evidence they gained in the interview
(3) PEACE - Very effective at exposing inconsistencies because the person does not know what the police know thus, makes it very difficult to make up a story without any holes
(4) PEACE no coercive tactics - no minimization and maximization to try to pressure people which may provide less of a chance for false confessions
(5) PEACE not focused on confessions - goal is to get as much info as possible
125
The Cognitive Interview (3)
(1) Memory is complex
(2) Ease of recall depends on overlap
(3) different retrieval cues for memory
126
Limitations of Cognitive Interview (5)
(1) more difficult to conduct
(2) it takes longer and
(3) requires more effort
(4) Only useful for cooperative eyewitnesses
(5) it is very much about improving recall memory it doesn’t help with recognition memory
127
Identify the two hypotheses in the study Who Can Catch a Liar.
(1) predicted that accurate observers would report using nonverbal clues more than would the inaccurate observers
(2) predicted a positive correlation between accuracy in detecting deceit and accuracy recognizing micro expressions of emotion
128
Identify the various groups of professional lie catchers who participated in Ekman’s study (Who Can Catch a Liar).
(7)
(1) U.S Secret Service
(2) Federal polygraphers
(3) Judges
(4) Police
(5) Psychiatrists
(6) Special Interest group
(7) Students
129
How was detecting deception measured in the study? Who Can Catch a Liar?
Consisted of 10 one-minute samples taken from 10 videotaped interviews, preceded by a practice item
130
Which group of professional lie catchers was most accurate?
Secret Service
131
What factors or variables were related to accuracy in detecting deception in Who Can Catch a Liar?
(3)
(1) More accurate lie detectors report using nonverbal as well as verbal clues to deceit
(2) Better able to interpret subtle facial expressions
(3) in some occupational groups lie catchers were younger
132
What do you think are some limitations to this study (Who Can Catch a Liar)?
Findings are based on judgements of only one kind of deception, the concealment of strong negative emotions.
133
What two structural aspects of a typical police interrogation are identified by Kassin (2015) as interesting?
(1) The fact that interrogation is, by definition, a guilt – presumptive process A theory–driven social interaction led by an authority figure who has formed a strong belief about the suspect, sometimes through a pre-interrogation interview, and who single-mindedly measures success by whether he or she is able to extract a confession. The guilt–presumption that accompanies the start of interrogation thus provides fertile ground for the operation of cognitive and behavioural confirmation biases.
(2) the “Milgramesque” nature of the process itself In that it elicits obedience. Like Milgram’s experiment in both venues, the subject is isolated without access to friends, family, or other means of social support – in a specially design space. Also, The subject is confronted by a figure of authority. Full obedience is achieved through the elicitation of gradually escalating acts of compliance.
134
What is the false evidence effect?
Police lies about evidence can lead innocent people both to confess and to internalize the belief in their own guilt
135
According to Kassin (2015), does a false confession have a corruptive effect on other evidence?
(1) confessions may also influence the way in which other evidence is interpreted for example, by tainting the perceptions of eyewitnesses, forensic scientists, and others
(2) A strong belief in a suspect’s guilt can also bias lay people’s judgements
(3) confessions can taint other evidence specifically, false confessions were accompanied by invalid or improper forensic science, mistaken eyewitness identifications and snitches or informants
136
What legal and policy recommendations does Kassin (2015) offer based on existing research? (4)
(1) it appears Miranda warnings do not adequately protect the citizens who need it most – those accused of crimes they did not commit. Therefore, other safeguards are needed.
(2) reform designed to protect highly vulnerable suspect population such as juveniles, people with cognitive impairments or mental health problems that increase compliance tendencies and suggestibility
(3) ban the use of coercive police interrogation practices (eg. false evidence ploy, minimization tactics that imply promises leniency)
(4) video recording of the entire interrogation, not just the confession. And The camera adopt a neutral equal focus perspective that shows both the accused and his or her interrogators
137
What are the 3 components or stages of the Reid techniques?
(1) factual analysis
(2) interviewing
(3) interrogation
